Appendix C. Academic Standards for Civics and Governmentand Economics and Geography and History

Academic Standards for History

Authority

The provisions of this Appendix C amended under sections 121, 2603-B and 2604-B of the Public School Code of 1949 (24 P. S. § § 1-121, 26-2603-B and 26-2604-B), unless otherwise noted.

Source

The provisions of this Appendix C adopted January 10, 2003, effective January 12, 2003, 33 Pa.B. 283; amended February 28, 2014, effective March 1, 2014, 44 Pa.B. 1131; corrected March 21, 2014, effective March 1, 2014, 44 Pa.B. 1754, unless otherwise noted. Immediately preceding text appears at serial pages (294913) to (295066), (320291) to (320310) and (367437).

Cross References

This appendix cited in 22 Pa. Code § 4.24 (relating to high school graduation requirements); 22 Pa. Code § 4.51 (relating to State assessment system); and 22 Pa. Code § 4.51b (relating to Keystone Exams).

XIII. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction… XXIII.

THE ACADEMIC STANDARDS

Historical Analysis and Skills Development …8.1.

A. Chronological Thinking

B. Historical Comprehension

C. Historical Interpretation

D. Historical Research

Pennsylvania History …8.2.

A. Contributions of Individuals and Groups

B. Documents, Artifacts and Historical Places

C. Influences of Continuity and Change

D. Conflict and Cooperation Among Groups

United States History …8.3.

A. Contributions of Individuals and Groups

B. Documents, Artifacts and Historical Places

C. Influences of Continuity and Change

D. Conflict and Cooperation Among Groups

World History …8.4.

A. Contributions of Individuals and Groups

B. Documents, Artifacts and Historical Places

C. Influences of Continuity and Change

D. Conflict and Cooperation Among Groups

Reading …8.5

Students read, understand, and respond to informational text in the content area—with an emphasis on comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, and making connections among ideas and between texts with a focus on textual evidence.

• Key Ideas and Details

• Craft and Structure

• Integration of Knowledge and Ideas

• Range and Level of Complex Texts

Writing …8.6

Students write for different purposes and audiences. Students write clear and focused text to convey a well-defined perspective and appropriate content.

• Text Types and Purposes

• Production and Distribution of Writing

• Research to Build and Present Knowledge

• Range of Writing

Glossary …XXIV.

XIV. INTRODUCTION

This document includes Academic Standards for Civics and Government that describe what students should know and be able to do in four areas:

• 5.1. Principles and Documents of Government

• 5.2. Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship

• 5.3. How Government Works

• 5.4. How International Relationships Function

The Civics and Government Academic Standards describe what students should know and be able to do at four grade levels (third, sixth, ninth and twelfth). Throughout the standard statements, concepts found in lower grades must be developed more fully throughout higher grade levels.

The Pennsylvania Constitution of 1790 was the basis for the Free Public School Act of 1834 that is the underpinning of today’s system of schools operating throughout the Commonwealth. These schools were created to educate children to be useful citizens, loyal to the principles upon which our Republic was founded, and aware of their duties as citizens to maintain those ideals.

The Academic Standards for Civics and Government are based on the Public School Code of 1949 which directs ‘‘. . . teaching and presentation of the principles and ideals of the American republican representative form of government as portrayed and experienced by the acts and policies of the framers of the Declaration of Independence and framers of the Constitution of the United States and Bill of Rights. . .’’. The intent of the Code is that such instruction ‘‘shall have for its purpose also instilling into every boy and girl who comes out of public, private and parochial schools their solemn duty and obligation to exercise intelligently their voting privilege and to understand the advantages of the American republican form of government as compared with various other forms of governments.’’

The Academic Standards for Civics and Government consist of four standard categories (designated as 5.1., 5.2., 5.3., and 5.4.). Each category has a number of standards statements designated by a capital letter. Some standard statements have bulleted items known as standard descriptors. The standard descriptors are items within the document to illustrate and enhance the standard statement. The categories, statements and descriptors are regulations. The descriptors may be followed by an “e.g.”. The “e.g.’s” are examples to clarify what type of information could be taught. These are suggestions and the choice of specific content is a local decision as is the method of instruction.

Civics and Government along with Economics, Geography and History are identified as Social Studies in Chapter 4. This identification is consistent with citizenship education in Chapter 49 and Chapter 354. Based on these regulations, Social Studies/Citizenship Programs should include the four sets of standards as an entity in developing a scope and sequence for curriculum and planned instruction.

A glossary is included to assist the reader in clarifying terminology contained in the standards.

5.1. Principles and Documents of Government
5.1.3. GRADE 3		5.1.6. GRADE 6		5.1.9. GRADE 9		5.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
A. Describe what government is.		A. Explain the purpose of government.		A. Identify and explain the major arguments advanced for the necessity of government.		A. Evaluate the major arguments advanced for the necessity of government.
B. Explain the purposes of rules and laws and why they are important in the classroom, school, community, state and nation.		B. Explain the importance of the rule of law for the protection of individual rights and the common good in the community, state, nation and world.		B. Describe historical examples of the importance of the rule of law. • Sources • Purposes • Functions		B. Analyze the sources, purposes and functions of law.
C. Define the principles and ideals shaping government. • Justice • Truth • Diversity of people and ideas • Patriotism • Common good • Liberty • Rule of law • Leadership • Citizenship		C. Describe the principles and ideals shaping government. • Equality • Majority rule/Minority rights • Popular sovereignty • Privacy • Checks and balances • Separation of powers		C. Analyze the principles and ideals that shape government. • Constitutional govern- ment • Liberal democracy • Classical republican- ism • Federalism		C. Evaluate the importance of the principles and ideals of civic life.

5.1. Principles and Documents of Government
5.1.3. GRADE 3		5.1.6. GRADE 6		5.1.9. GRADE 9		5.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
D. Identify the document which created Pennsylvania.		D. Explain the basic principles and ideals within documents of Pennsylvania government. • Charter of 1681 • Charter of Privileges • Pennsylvania Constitution • Pennsylvania Declaration of Rights		D. Interpret significant changes in the basic documents shaping the government of Pennsylvania. • The Great Law of 1682 • Constitution of 1776 • Constitution of 1790 • Constitution of 1838 • Constitution of 1874 • Constitution of 1968		D. Analyze the principles and ideals that shape the government of Pennsylvania and apply them to the government. • The Charter of 1681 • Charter of Privileges • PA Constitution, its revisions and Amend- ments

5.1. Principles and Documents of Government
5.1.3. GRADE 3		5.1.6. GRADE 6		5.1.9. GRADE 9		5.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
E. Identify documents of United States government. • Declaration of Independence • Constitution of the United States • Bill of Rights		E. Explain the basic principles and ideals within documents of United States government.		E. Analyze the basic documents shaping the government of the United States. • Magna Carta • English Bill of Rights • Mayflower Compact • Articles of Confederation • Declaration of Independence • Federalist papers • Anti-federalist writings • United States Constitution		E. Evaluate the principles and ideals that shape the United States and compare them to documents of government.

5.1. Principles and Documents of Government
5.1.3. GRADE 3		5.1.6. GRADE 6		5.1.9. GRADE 9		5.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
F. Explain the meaning of a preamble. • Constitution of the United States • Pennsylvania Constitution		F. Explain the meaning of the Preamble to the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and compare it to the Preamble of the Constitution of the United States.		F. Contrast the individual rights created by the Pennsylvania Constitution and those created by the Constitution of the United States.		F. Analyze and assess the rights of the people as listed in the Pennsylvania Constitution and the Constitution of the United States.
G. Describe the purpose of the United States Flag, The Pledge of Allegiance and The National Anthem.		G. Describe the proper use, display and respect for the United States Flag and explain the significance of patriotic activities. • Reciting The Pledge of Allegiance • Standing for The Na- tional Anthem		G. Describe the procedures for proper uses, display and respect for the United States Flag as per the National Flag Code.		G. Analyze and interpret the role of the United States Flag in civil disobedience and in patriotic activities.

5.1. Principles and Documents of Government
5.1.3. GRADE 3		5.1.6. GRADE 6		5.1.9. GRADE 9		5.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
H. Identify framers of documents of governments. • Pennsylvania • United States		H. Describe the roles played by the framers of the basic documents of governments of Pennsylvania and the United States.		H. Explain and interpret the roles of framers of basic documents of government from a national and Pennsylvania perspective.		H. Analyze the competing positions held by the framers of the basic documents of government of Pennsylvania and United States.
I. Explain why government is necessary in the classroom, school, community, state and nation and the basic purposes of government in Pennsylvania and the United States.		I. Describe and compare the making of rules by direct democracy and by republican form of government.		I. Explain the essential characteristics of limited and unlimited governments and explain the advantages and disadvantages of systems of government. • Confederal • Federal • Unitary		I. Analyze historical examples of the importance of the rule of law explaining the sources, purposes and functions of law.
J. Explain the importance of respect for the property and the opinions of others.		J. Describe how the government protects individual and property rights and promotes the common good.		J. Explain how law protects individual rights and the common good.		J. Analyze how the law promotes the common good and protects individual rights.

5.1. Principles and Documents of Government
5.1.3. GRADE 3		5.1.6. GRADE 6		5.1.9. GRADE 9		5.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
K. Identify symbols and political holidays. • Pennsylvania (e.g., Charter Day, Liberty Bell, Keystone State) • United States (e.g., Presidents’ Day, Statue of Liberty, White House)		K. Describe the purpose of symbols and holidays.		K. Explain why symbols and holidays were created and the ideals they commemorate.		K. Analyze the roles of symbols and holidays in society.
L. Identify ways courts resolve conflicts involving principles and ideals of government.		L. Explain the role of courts in resolving conflicts involving the principles and ideals of government. • Local • State • Federal		L. Interpret Pennsylvania and United States court decisions that have impacted the principles and ideals of government.		L. Analyze Pennsylvania and United States court decisions that have affected principles and ideals of government in civic life. • Civil rights • Commerce • Judicial review • Federal supremacy

5.1. Principles and Documents of Government
5.1.3. GRADE 3		5.1.6. GRADE 6		5.1.9. GRADE 9		5.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
M. Identify portions of famous speeches and writings that reflect the basic principles and ideals of government (e.g., ‘‘I have a dream,’’ Reverend Martin Luther King; ‘‘One small step for man,’’ Neil Armstrong).		M. Explain the basic principles and ideals found in famous speeches and writings (e.g., ‘‘Governments, like clocks, go from the motion people give them,’’ William Penn; ‘‘A date that will live in infamy,’’ Franklin D. Roosevelt).		M. Interpret the impact of famous speeches and writings on civic life (e.g., The Gospel of Wealth, Declaration of Sentiments).		M. Evaluate and analyze the importance of significant political speeches and writings in civic life (e.g., Diary of Anne Frank, Silent Spring).
Basic concepts found in lower grades for standard statements and their descriptors must be developed more fully throughout higher grade levels.

5.2. Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship
5.2.3. GRADE 3		5.2.6. GRADE 6		5.2.9. GRADE 9		5.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
A. Identify examples of the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. • Personal rights • Political rights • Economic rights • Personal responsibili- ties • Civic responsibilities		A. Compare rights and responsibilities of citizenship. • Political rights • Economic rights • Personal responsibilities of the individual and to society • Civic responsibilities of the individual and to society • Traits of character of individuals and to a republican form of government		A. Contrast the essential rights and responsibilities of citizens in systems of government. • Autocracy • Democracy • Oligarchy • Republic		A. Evaluate an individual’s civic rights, responsibilities and duties in various governments.
B. Identify personal rights and responsibilities.		B. Explain the relationship between rights and responsibilities.		B. Analyze citizens’ rights and responsibilities in local, state and national government.		B. Evaluate citizen’s participation in government and civic life.

5.2. Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship
5.2.3. GRADE 3		5.2.6. GRADE 6		5.2.9. GRADE 9		5.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
C. Identify sources of conflict and disagreement and different ways conflicts can be resolved.		C. Explain ways citizens resolve conflicts in society and government.		C. Analyze skills used to resolve conflicts in society and government.		C. Interpret the causes of conflict in society and analyze techniques to resolve those conflicts.
D. Identify the importance of political leadership and public service in the school, community, state and nation.		D. Describe the importance of political leadership and public service.		D. Analyze political leadership and public service in a republican form of government.		D. Evaluate political leadership and public service in a republican form of government.
E. Describe ways citizens can influence the decisions and actions of government.		E. Identify examples of the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.		E. Explain the importance of the political process to competent and responsible participation in civic life.		E. Analyze how participation in civic and political life leads to the attainment of individual and public goals.
F. Explain the benefits of following rules and laws and the consequences of violating them.		F. Describe the impact of the consequences of violating rules and laws in a civil society.		F. Analyze the consequences of violating laws of Pennsylvania compared to those of the United States.		F. Evaluate how individual rights may conflict with or support the common good.
G. Identify ways to participate in government and civic life.		G. Explain the importance of participating in government and civic life.		G. Analyze political and civic participation in government and society.		G. Evaluate what makes a competent and responsible citizen.

5.2. Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship
5.2.3. GRADE 3		5.2.6. GRADE 6		5.2.9. GRADE 9		5.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
Basic concepts found in lower grades for standard statements and their descriptors must be developed more fully throughout higher grade levels.

5.3. How Government Works
5.3.3. GRADE 3		5.3.6. GRADE 6		5.3.9. GRADE 9		5.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
A. Identify the elected representative bodies responsible for making local, Pennsylvania and United States laws.		A. Compare the structure, organization and operation of local, state and national governments.		A. Explain the structure, organization and operation of the local, state and national governments including domestic and national policy-making.		A. Analyze and evaluate the structure, organization and operation of the local, state and national governments including domestic and national policy-making.
B. Identify the role of the three branches of government. • Executive • Legislative • Judicial		B. Describe the responsibilities and powers of the three branches of government.		B. Compare the responsibilities and powers of the three branches within the national government.		B. Analyze the responsibilities and powers of the national government.
C. Identify reasons for rules and laws in the school and community.		C. Explain how government actions affect citizens’ daily lives.		C. Explain how a bill becomes a law on a federal, state, and local level.		C. Evaluate the process of how a bill becomes the law on a federal, state, and local levels.

5.3. How Government Works
5.3.3. GRADE 3		5.3.6. GRADE 6		5.3.9. GRADE 9		5.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
D. Identify services performed by the local, state and national governments.		D. Describe how local, state and national governments implement their services.		D. Explain how independent government agencies create, amend and enforce regulatory policies. • Local (e.g., Zoning Board) • State (e.g., Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission) • National (e.g., Federal Communications Commission)		D. Evaluate how independent government agencies create, amend and enforce regulations.
E. Identify positions of authority at school and in local, state and national governments.		E. Identify major leaders of local, state and national governments, their primary duties and their political party affiliation.		E. Explain how citizens participate in choosing their leaders through political parties, campaigns and elections.		E. Evaluate the roles of political parties in election campaigns.

5.3. How Government Works
5.3.3. GRADE 3		5.3.6. GRADE 6		5.3.9. GRADE 9		5.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
F. Explain what an election is.		F. Describe the voting process. • Pennsylvania • United States		F. Explain the election process. • Voter registration • Primary Elections • Caucuses • Political party conventions • General Elections • Electoral College		F. Evaluate the elements of the election process.
G. Explain why being treated fairly is important.		G. Describe how the government protects individual rights. • Presumption of Innocence • Right to Counsel • Trial by Jury • Bill of Rights		G. Explain how the government protects individual rights. • Equal protection • Habeas Corpus • Right Against Self Incrimination • Double Jeopardy • Right of Appeal • Due Process		G. Evaluate how the government protects or curtails individual rights and analyze the impact of supporting or opposing those rights.

5.3. How Government Works
5.3.3. GRADE 3		5.3.6. GRADE 6		5.3.9. GRADE 9		5.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
H. Identify individual interests and explain ways to influence others.		H. Identify individual interests and how they impact government.		H. Analyze how interest groups provide opportunities for citizens to participate in the political process.		H. Evaluate the impact of interest groups on the political process.
I. Explain why taxes are necessary and identify who pays them.		I. Describe why and how government raises money to pay for its operations and services.		I. Analyze how and why government raises money to pay for its operation and services.		I. Evaluate how and why government raises money to pay for its operations and services.
J. Identify the role of the media in society.		J. Describe the influence of media in reporting issues.		J. Analyze the importance of freedom of the press.		J. Evaluate the role of media in political life in the United States and explain the role of the media in setting the public agenda.
K. Identify different ways people govern themselves.		K. Describe forms of government. • Limited • Unlimited		K. Identify and explain systems of government. • Autocracy • Democracy • Oligarchy • Republic		K. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of various systems of government. • Autocracy • Democracy • Oligarchy • Republic
Basic concepts found in lower grades for standard statements and their descriptors must be developed more fully throughout higher grade levels.

5.4. How International Relationships Function
5.4.3. GRADE 3		5.4.6. GRADE 6		5.4.9. GRADE 9		5.4.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
A. Identify how customs and traditions influence governments.		A. Explain the concept of nation-states.		A. Explain how the United States is affected by policies of nation-states, governmental and non-governmental organizations.		A. Analyze the impact of international economic, technological and cultural developments on the government of the United States.
B. Recognize that the world is divided into various political units.		B. Describe how nation-states coexist in the world community.		B. Explain the role of the United States in world affairs.		B. Analyze the United States’ interaction with other nations and governmental groups in world events.
C. Identify ways in which countries interact with the United States.		C. Describe the governments of the countries bordering the United States and their relationships with the United States.		C. Explain the effects United States political ideas have had on other nations.		C. Compare how past and present United States’ policy interests have changed over time and analyze the impact on future international relationships.

5.4. How International Relationships Function
5.4.3. GRADE 3		5.4.6. GRADE 6		5.4.9. GRADE 9		5.4.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
D. Identify treaties and other agreements between or among nations.		D. Describe the processes that resulted in a treaty or agreement between the United States and another nation-state.		D. Contrast how the three branches of federal government function in foreign policy.		D. Explain how foreign policy is developed and implemented.
E. Identify how nations work together to solve problems.		E. Explain how nations work together on common environmental problems, natural disasters and trade.		E. Explain the development and the role of the United Nations and other international organizations, both governmental and non-governmental.		E. Compare the purposes and functions of international organizations. • Governmental (e.g., NATO, World Court, OAS) • Nongovernmental (e.g., International Red Cross, Amnesty International, World Council of Churches)

XV. GLOSSARY

Amendment (Constitutional):	Changes in, or additions to, a constitution. Proposed by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress or by a convention called by Congress at the request of two-thirds of the state legislatures. Ratified by approval of three-fourths of the state.
Articles of Confederation:	First framework of government of the United States, 1781. Created a weak national government, replaced in 1789 by the Constitution of the United States.
Authority:	Right to control or direct the actions of others, legitimized by law, morality, custom or consent.
Autocracy:	A government in which one person possesses unlimited power.
Bill of Rights:	First Ten Amendments to the Constitution. Ratified in 1791, these amendments limit government power and protect basic rights and liberties of individuals.
Caucuses:	A private meeting of members of a political party to plan action or to select delegates for a nominating convention. The term also refers to distinct groups, either official or unofficial, in Congress, as in the black caucus in the House of Representatives.
Checks and balances:	Constitutional mechanisms that authorize each branch of government to share powers with the other branches and thereby check their activities. For example, the president may veto legislation passed by Congress, the Senate must confirm major executive appointments and the courts may declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.
Citizen:	Member of a political society who therefore owes allegiance to and is entitled to protection by and from the government.
Citizenship:	Status of being a member of a state; one who owes allegiance to the government and is entitled to protection by and from the government.
Civic life:	A manner of existence of an individual concerned with the affairs of communities and the common good rather than solely in pursuit of private and personal interests.
Civic responsibilities:	Obligation of citizens to take part in the governance of the school, community, tribe, state or nation.
Civil disobedience:	Refusal to obey laws. This tactic is usually passive and nonviolent, aimed at bringing injustices to the attention of lawmakers and the public at large. An example of civil disobedience was the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s.
Civil rights:	Protections and privileges given to all United States citizens by the Constitution and Bill of Rights.
Civil society:	The spheres of voluntary individual, social and economic relationships and organizations that although limited by law are not part of governmental institutions.
Classical republicanism:	Refers to government that seeks the public or common good rather than the good of a particular group or class of society.
Common or public good:	Benefit or interest of a politically organized society as a whole.
Confederal:	Relating to a league of independent states.
Constitutional government:	A form of authority in which a legal structure details the powers available to each branch of government and the rights of the individual in relation to the government. Any action by government that is not in accord with the Constitution is considered illegitimate.
Democracy:	Form of government in which political control is exercised by the people, either directly or through their elected representatives.
Diplomacy:	The art and practice of conducting negotiations between nations.
Direct democracy:	Form of government in which the people completely exercise political decisions.
Diversity:	State of being different; variety.
Documents of government:	Papers necessary for the organization and powers of government.
Double jeopardy:	A concept established by law that says a person cannot be tried twice for the same offense. It is part of the Fifth Amendment, which states that ‘‘no person shall . . . be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.’’
Due process of law:	Right of every citizen to be protected against arbitrary action by government.
Economic rights:	Financial choices and privileges that individuals may select without government prohibition. Economic rights would include: right to own property, change employment, operate a business and join a labor union.
Electoral College:	The group of presidential electors that casts the official votes for president after the presidential election. Each state has a number of electors equal to the total of its members in the Senate and House of Representatives.
Enumerated powers:	Powers that are specifically granted to Congress by Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution.
Equal protection:	An idea that no individual or group may receive special privileges from nor be unjustly discriminated against by the political authority of the legal system.
Equality:	The condition of possessing substantially the same rights, privileges and immunities, and being substantially responsible for the same duties as other members of society.
Federal Supremacy Clause:	Article VI of the Constitution provides that the Constitution and all federal laws and treaties shall be the ‘‘Supreme Law of the Land.’’ Therefore, all federal laws take precedence over state and local laws.
Federal system (or Federalism):	Form of political organization in which governmental power is divided between a central government and territorial subdivisions (e.g., in the United States—the national, state and local governments).
Federalism:	The distribution of power in a government between a central authority and states and the distribution of power among states with most powers retained by central government.
Foreign Policy:	Actions of the federal government directed to matters beyond United States’ borders, especially relations with other countries.
Government:	Institutions and procedures through which a territory and its people are ruled.
Habeas Corpus:	Court order demanding that the individual in custody be brought into court and shown the cause for detention. Habeas corpus is guaranteed by the Constitution and can be suspended only in the case of rebellion or invasion.
Individual responsibility:	Fulfilling the moral and legal obligations of membership in society.
Individual rights:	Just claims due a person by law, morality or tradition as opposed to those due to groups.
Interest group:	Organized body of individuals who share same goals and try to influence public policy to meet those goals.
International organizations:	Groups formed by nation-states to achieve common political, social or economic goals.
Judicial Review:	Doctrine that permits the federal courts to declare unconstitutional, and thus null and void, acts of the Congress, the executive branch and the states. The precedent for judicial review was established in the 1803 case of Marbury v. Madison.
Justice:	That which may be obtained through fair distribution of benefits and burdens, fair correction of wrongs and injuries, or use of fair procedures in gathering information and making decisions.
Leadership:	State or condition of one who guides or governs.
Liberal Democracy:	Government that recognizes that the individual has rights that exist independently of government and which ought to be protected by and against government.
Liberty:	Freedom from restraint under conditions essential to the equal enjoyment of the same right by others.
Limited government:	A legal structure where officials in authority do not have enormous power. The Constitution of the United States limits government through methods of checks and balances.
Majority rule:	Decision by more than half of those participating in the decision-making process.
Minority rights:	Opportunities that a member is entitled to have, or to receive from others within the limits of the law, even though he/she may not be part of the controlling group.
Nation-state:	Divisions of the world in which each state claims sovereignty over defined territory and jurisdiction over everyone within it. These states interact using diplomacy, formal agreements and sanctions that may be peaceful or may involve the use of force.
NATO:	North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an international transatlantic partnership consisting of various European states, the United States and Canada, which was designed through cooperation, consultation and collective defense to maintain peace and promote stability throughout Europe.
Non-governmental organization:	A group in a free society that is not a part of any government institution and does not derive its power from government.
OAS:	Organization of American States, an international governmental organization formed by the states of North and South America for security and the protection of mutual interests.
Oligarchy:	A government in which a small group exercises control. These systems are usually based on wealth, military power or social position.
Patriotism:	A feeling of pride in and respect for one’s country.
Personal rights:	Private legal privileges and decisions that individuals are free to participate in without intervention from government. Personal rights would include the right to vote, petition, assemble, and seek public office.
Political party:	Any group, however loosely organized, that seeks to elect government officials under a given label.
Political rights:	Legal claims by citizens to participate in government and be treated fairly. Political rights would include the right to vote, petition, assemble, and seek public office.
Popular sovereignty:	The concept that ultimate political authority rests with the people to create, alter or abolish governments.
Presumption of innocence:	The legal concept that a criminal defendant is not guilty until the prosecution proves every element of the crime, beyond a reasonable doubt.
Privacy:	The right to be left alone; the right of an individual to withhold one’s self and one’s property from public scrutiny if one so chooses.
Public service:	Action of benefit to local, state or national communities through appointed or elected office.
Representative Democracy:	Form of government in which power is held by the voters and is exercised indirectly through elected representatives who make decisions.
Republic:	Form of government in which political control is exercised through elected representatives.
Republican form of government:	System of government in which power is held by the voters and is exercised by elected representatives responsible for promoting the common welfare.
Right against self-incrimination:	Individual right found in the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution that prevents an individual from being forced to testify against himself or herself.
Right of appeal:	The right to seek review by a superior court of an injustice done or error committed by an inferior court, whose judgment or decision the court above is called upon to correct or reverse.
Right to counsel:	Individual right found in the Sixth Amendment to the Constitution that requires criminal defendants to have access to legal representation.
Rule of Law:	Principle that every member of a society, even a ruler, must follow the law.
Separation of powers:	Distribution among the branches of government to ensure that the same person or group will not make the law, enforce the law and interpret the law.
State:	A commonwealth; a nation; a civil power.
Treaty:	Formal agreement between or among sovereign nations to create or restrict rights and responsibilities. In the United States all treaties must be approved by a two-thirds vote in the Senate.
Trial by jury:	Individual right found in the Sixth and Seventh Amendment of the Constitution that guarantees a person an impartial jury.
Truth:	Agreement of thought and reality that can eventually be verified.
Unitary government:	An authoritative system in which all regulatory power is vested in a central government from which regional and local governments derive their powers (e.g., Great Britain and France as well as the American states within their spheres of authority).
United Nations:	International organization comprising most of the nation-states of the world. It was formed in 1945 to promote peace, security and economic development.
Unlimited government:	A legal structure where officials in authority have unrestricted power. Examples of unlimited governments would be authoritarian or totalitarian systems without restraints on their power.
World Court:	Court in the Hague, the Netherlands, set up by the United Nations treaty to which nations may voluntarily submit disputes.

Academic Standards for Economics

XVI. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction…XVII.

THE ACADEMIC STANDARDS

Economic Systems…6.1.
A. Similarities and Differences in Economic Systems
B. Traditional, Command and Market Economics
C. Measures of Economic Activity
D. Expansion, Recession and Depression in the Economy

Markets and the Functions of Governments…6.2.
A. Market Transactions
B. Costs and Benefits of Competition
C. Function of Money
D. Economic Institutions
E. Changes in Supply and Demand
F. Forces that Can Change Price
G. Sources of Tax Revenue
H. Economic Roles for Governments
I. Public Goods
J. Costs and Benefits of Taxation
K. Impact of Media on the Cost and Benefits of Decisions
L. Exchange Rates

Scarcity and Choice…6.3.
A. Scarcity and Limited Resources
B. Economic Reasoning of Choices
C. Allocation of Resources
D. Marginal Analysis and Decision-Making
E. Opportunity Cost
F. Incentives

Economic Interdependence…6.4.
A. Specialization
B. Trade
C. Implementation or Reduction of Trade Barriers
D. Pennsylvania Economic Patterns
E. Global Production and Consumption of Goods or Services
F. Comparative Advantage
G. Geographic Patterns of Economic Activities

Work and Earnings…6.5.
A. Factors Influencing Wages
B. Labor Productivity
C. Type of Businesses
D. Profits and Losses
E. Distribution of Wealth
F. Entrepreneurship
G. Costs and Benefits of Saving
H. Impact of Interest Rates

Glossary… XVIII.

XVII. INTRODUCTION

This document includes Academic Standards for Economics that describe what students should know and be able to do in five areas:

• 6.1. Economic Systems

• 6.2. Markets and the Functions of Governments

• 6.3. Scarcity and Choice

• 6.4. Economic Interdependence

• 6.5. Work and Earnings

The Economic Standards describe what students should know and be able to do at four grade levels (third, sixth, ninth and twelfth). They reflect the increasing complexity and sophistication that students are expected to achieve as they progress through school. This document attempts to avoid repetition and makes obvious progression across grade levels. Topics and concepts in Economics directly relate to Environment and Ecology Standard 4.2 and Geography Standard 7.3. As a social science, Economics Standards should be Cross-Walked and related to the Civics and Government, Geography and History Standards to create an interdisciplinary view of the world.

Economics is concerned with the behavior of individuals and institutions engaged in the production, exchange and consumption of goods and services. As technology helps to reshape the economy, knowledge of how the world works is critical. People entering the workforce cannot function effectively without a basic knowledge of the characteristics of economic systems, how markets establish prices, how scarcity and choice affect the allocation of resources, the global nature of economic interdependence and how work and earnings impact productivity.

A Pennsylvania governor remarked, ‘‘Among the freedoms we enjoy in America in our pursuit of happiness is the freedom to be independent, creative, visionary and entrepreneurial. We are free to pursue dreams. . .’’ To succeed, however, every student must know how to manage resources, prepare for the workforce, make wise investments and be informed about public policy. These standards are intended to provide direction in learning how economic activity impacts the forces of everyday life.

The academic standards for Economics consist of five standard categories (designated as 6.1., 6.2., 6.3., 6.4. and 6.5.). Each category has a number of standards statements designated by a capital letter. Some standard statements have bulleted items known as standard descriptors. The standard descriptors are items within the document to illustrate and enhance the standard statement. The categories, statements and descriptors are regulations. The descriptors may be followed by an ‘‘e.g.’’ The “e.g.’s” are examples to clarify what type of information could be taught. These are suggestions and thechoice of specific content is a local decision as is the method of instruction.

Economics along with Civics and Government, Geography, and History are identified as Social Studies in Chapter 4. This identification is consistent with citizenship education in Chapter 49 and Chapter 354. Based on these regulations, social studies/citizenship programs should include four sets of standards as an entity in developing a scope and sequence for curriculum and planned instruction.

A glossary is included to assist the reader in clarifying terminology contained in the standards.

6.1. Economic Systems
6.1.3. GRADE 3		6.1.6. GRADE 6		6.1.9. GRADE 9		6.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
A. Describe how individuals, families and communities with limited resources make choices.		A. Describe and identify the characteristics of traditional, command and market systems.		A. Analyze the similarities and differences in economic systems.		A. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of traditional, command and market economics.
B. Describe alternative methods of allocating goods and services and advantages and disadvantages of each.		B. Explain the three basic questions that all economic systems attempt to answer. • What goods and services should be produced? • How will goods and services be produced? • Who will consume goods and services?		B. Explain how traditional, command and market economies answer the basic economic questions.		B. Analyze the impact of traditional, command and market economies on the United States economy.
C. Identify local economic activities. • Employment • Output		C. Define measures of economic activity and relate them to the health of the economy. • Prices • Employment • Output		C. Explain how economic indicators reflect changes in the economy. • Consumer Price Index (CPI) • Gross Domestic Product (GDP) • Unemployment rate		C. Assess the strength of the regional, national and/or international economy and compare it to another time period based upon economic indicators.
D. Identify examples of local businesses opening, closing, expanding or contracting.		D. Explain the importance of expansion and contraction on individual businesses (e.g., gourmet food shops, auto repair shops, ski resorts).		D. Describe historical examples of expansion, recession and depression in the United States.		D. Describe historical examples of expansion, recession, and depression internationally.

6.2. Markets and the Functions of Governments
6.2.3. GRADE 3		6.2.6. GRADE 6		6.2.9. GRADE 9		6.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
A. Define and identify goods, services, consumers and producers.		A. Describe market transactions in terms of goods, services, consumers and producers.		A. Explain the flow of goods, services and resources in a mixed economy.		A. Analyze the flows of products, resources and money in a mixed economy.
B. Identify ways local businesses compete to get customers.		B. Describe the costs and benefits of competition to consumers in markets.		B. Analyze how the number of consumers and producers affects the level of competition within a market.		B. Evaluate the operation of noncompetitive markets.
C. Identify and compare means of payment. • Barter • Money		C. Explain the function of money and its use in society.		C. Explain the structure and purpose of the Federal Reserve System.		C. Analyze policies designed to raise or lower interest rates and how the Federal Reserve Board influences interest rates.
D. Identify groups of competing producers in the local area.		D. Define economic institutions (e.g., banks, labor unions).		D. Analyze the functions of economic institutions (e.g., corporations, not-for-profit institutions).		D. Evaluate changes in economic institutions over time (e.g. stock markets, nongovernment organizations).

6.2. Markets and the Functions of Governments
6.2.3. GRADE 3		6.2.6. GRADE 6		6.2.9. GRADE 9		6.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
E. Identify who supplies a product and who demands a product.		E. Explain how the interaction of buyers and sellers determines prices and quantities exchanged.		E. Explain the laws of supply and demand and how these affect the prices of goods and services.		E. Predict how changes in supply and demand affect equilibrium price and quantity sold.
F. Define price and identify the prices of different items.		F. Describe how prices influence both buyers and sellers and explain why prices may vary for similar products.		F. Analyze how competition among producers and consumers affects price, costs, product quality, service, product design and variety and advertising.		F. Identify and analyze forces that can change price. • Government actions • Weather conditions • International events
G. Define what a tax is and identify a tax paid by most families.		G. Explain how taxes affect the price of goods and services.		G. Contrast the largest sources of tax revenue with where most tax revenue is spent in Pennsylvania.		G. Evaluate types of tax systems. • Progressive • Proportional • Regressive

6.2. Markets and the Functions of Governments
6.2.3. GRADE 3		6.2.6. GRADE 6		6.2.9. GRADE 9		6.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
H. Identify government involvement in local economic activities.		H. Describe the Pennsylvania and United States governments’ roles in monitoring economic activities.		H. Analyze the economic roles of governments in market economies. • Economic growth and stability • Legal frameworks • Other economic goals (e.g., environmental protection, competition)		H. Evaluate the economic roles of governments. • Macroeconomics (e.g., tariffs and quotas, exchange rates, trade balance) • Microeconomics (e.g., price controls, monopolies, cartels)
I. Identify goods and services produced by the government (e.g., postal service, food inspection).		I. Identify and describe public goods.		I. Explain how government provides public goods.		I. Evaluate government decisions to provide public goods.
J. Explain the relationship between taxation and government services.		J. Explain the cost and benefits of taxation.		J. Contrast the taxation policies of the local, state and national governments in the economy.		J. Evaluate the social, political and economic changes in tax policy using cost/benefit analysis.
K. Identify forms of advertising designed to influence personal choice.		K. Explain how advertisements influence perceptions of the costs and benefits of economic decisions.		K. Interpret how media reports can influence perceptions of the costs and benefits of decisions.		K. Analyze the impact of media on decision-making of consumers, producers and policymakers.

6.2. Markets and the Functions of Governments
6.2.3. GRADE 3		6.2.6. GRADE 6		6.2.9. GRADE 9		6.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
L. Explain why most countries create their own form of money.		L. Explain what an exchange rate is.		L. Explain how the price of one currency is related to the price of another currency (e.g., Japanese yen in American dollar, Canadian dollar in Mexican nuevo peso).		L. Analyze how policies and international events may change exchange rates.

6.3. Scarcity and Choice
6.3.3. GRADE 3		6.3.6. GRADE 6		6.3.9. GRADE 9		6.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
A. Define scarcity and identify limited resources scarcity.		A. Explain how scarcity influences choices and behaviors. • Personal decision-making • Family decision-making • Community decision-making		A. Describe ways to deal with scarcity. • Community • Pennsylvania • United States		A. Analyze actions taken as a result of scarcity issues in the regional, national and international economies.
B. Define and identify wants of different people.		B. Explain how limited resources and unlimited wants cause scarcity.		B. Analyze how unlimited wants and limited resources affect decision-making.		B. Evaluate the economic reasoning behind a choice.
C. Identify and define natural, human and capital resources.		C. Describe the natural, human and capital resources used to produce a specific good or service.		C. Explain how resources can be used in different ways to produce different goods and services.		C. Evaluate the allocation of resources used to produce goods and services.
D. Identify costs and benefits associated with an economic decision.		D. Explain the costs and benefits of an economic decision.		D. Explain marginal analysis and decision-making.		D. Evaluate regional, national or international economic decisions using marginal analysis.
E. Explain what is given up when making a choice.		E. Define opportunity cost and describe the opportunity cost of a personal choice.		E. Explain the opportunity cost of a public choice from different perspectives.		E. Analyze the opportunity cost of decisions by individuals, businesses, communities and nations.

6.3. Scarcity and Choice
6.3.3. GRADE 3		6.3.6. GRADE 6		6.3.9. GRADE 9		6.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
F. Explain how self interest influences choice.		F. Explain how negative and positive incentives affect choices.		F. Explain how incentives affect the behaviors of workers, savers, consumers and producers.		F. Evaluate in terms of marginal analysis how incentives influence decisions of consumers, producers and policy makers.

6.4. Economic Interdependence
6.4.3. GRADE 3		6.4.6. GRADE 6		6.4.9. GRADE 9		6.4.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
A. Define specialization and the concept of division of labor.		A. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of specialization and division of labor.		A. Explain why specialization may lead to increased production and consumption.		A. Analyze how specialization may increase the standard of living.
B. Explain why people trade.		B. Explain how specialization leads to more trade between people and nations.		B. Explain how trade may improve a society’s standard of living.		B. Analyze the relationships between trade, competition and productivity.
C. Explain why goods, services and resources come from all over the nation and the world.		C. Identify and define imports, exports, inter-regional trade and international trade.		C. Explain why governments sometimes restrict or subsidize trade.		C. Evaluate how a nation might benefit by lowering or removing trade barriers.
D. Identify local resources. • Natural (renewable, nonrenewable and flow resources) • Human • Capital		D. Explain how the locations of resources, transportation and communication networks and technology have affected Pennsylvania economic patterns. • Agriculture (e.g., farms) • Forestry (e.g., logging) • Mining and mineral extraction (e.g., coal fields) • Manufacturing (e.g., steel mills) • Wholesale and retail (e.g., super stores, internet)		D. Explain how the locations of resources, transportation and communication networks and technology have affected United States economic patterns. • Labor markets (e.g., migrant workers) • Interstate highway system and sea and inland ports (e.g., movement of goods) • Communication technologies (e.g., facsimile transmission, satellite-based communications)		D. Explain how the locations of resources, transportation and communication networks and technology have affected international economic patterns.

6.4. Economic Interdependence
6.4.3. GRADE 3		6.4.6. GRADE 6		6.4.9. GRADE 9		6.4.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
E. Define specialization and identify examples of interdependence.		E. Explain how specialization and trade lead to interdependence.		E. Analyze how Pennsylvania consumers and producers participate in the global production and consumption of goods or services.		E. Analyze how United States consumers and producers participate in the global production and consumption of goods or services.
F. Explain why some products are produced locally while others are not.		F. Explain how opportunity costs influence where goods and services are produced locally and regionally.		F. Explain how opportunity cost can be used to determine the product for which a nation has a comparative advantage.		F. Evaluate how trade is influenced by comparative advantage and opportunity costs.
G. Identify local geographic patterns of economic activities. • Agriculture • Travel and tourism • Mining and mineral extraction • Manufacturing • Wholesale and retail • Health services		G. Describe geographic patterns of economic activities in Pennsylvania. • Agriculture • Travel and tourism • Mining and mineral extraction • Manufacturing • Wholesale and retail • Health services		G. Describe geographic patterns of economic activities in the United States. • Primary—extractive industries (i.e., farming, fishing, forestry, mining) • Secondary—materials processing industries (i.e., manufacturing) • Tertiary—service industries (e.g., retailing, wholesaling, finance, real estate, travel and tourism, transportation)		G. Evaluate characteristics and distribution of international economic activities. • Primary—extractive industries (i.e., farming, fishing, forestry, mining) • Secondary—materials processing industries (i.e., manufacturing) • Tertiary—service industries (e.g., retailing, wholesaling, finance, real estate, travel and tourism, transportation)

6.5. Work and Earnings
6.5.3. GRADE 3		6.5.6. GRADE 6		6.5.9. GRADE 9		6.5.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
A. Explain why people work to get goods and services.		A. Recognize that the availability of goods and services is the result of work by members of the society.		A. Define wages and explain how wages are determined by the supply of and demand of workers.		A. Analyze the factors influencing wages. • Demand for goods and services produced • Labor unions • Productivity • Education/skills
B. Identify different occupations.		B. Explain the concept of labor productivity.		B. Describe how productivity is measured and identify ways in which a person can improve his or her productivity.		B. Evaluate how changes in education, incentives, technology and capital investment alter productivity.
C. Describe businesses that provide goods and businesses that provide services.		C. Compare the number of employees at different businesses.		C. Identify and explain the characteristics of the three types of businesses. • Sole Proprietorship • Partnership • Corporation		C. Analyze the costs and benefits of organizing a business as a sole proprietorship, partnership or corporation.
D. Define profit and loss.		D. Explain how profits and losses serve as incentives.		D. Analyze how risks influence business decision-making		D. Analyze the role of profits and losses in the allocation of resources in a market economy.

6.5. Work and Earnings
6.5.3. GRADE 3		6.5.6. GRADE 6		6.5.9. GRADE 9		6.5.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
E. Identify examples of assets. • Tangible (e.g., houses, cars, jewelry) • Financial assets (e.g., stocks, bonds, savings accounts)		E. Describe how people accumulate tangible and financial assets through income, saving, and financial investment.		E. Define wealth and describe its distribution within and among the political divisions of the United States.		E. Compare distribution of wealth across nations.
F. Define entrepreneurship and identify entrepreneurs in the local community.		F. Identify entrepreneurs in Pennsylvania. • Historical • Contemporary		F. Identify leading entrepreneurs in Pennsylvania and the United States and describe the risks they took and the rewards they received.		F. Assess the impact of entrepreneurs on the economy.

6.5. Work and Earnings
6.5.3. GRADE 3		6.5.6. GRADE 6		6.5.9. GRADE 9		6.5.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
G. Define saving and explain why people save.		G. Identify the costs and benefits of saving. • Piggy banks • Savings accounts • U.S. Savings Bonds		G. Explain the differences among stocks, bonds and mutual funds.		G. Analyze the risks and returns of various investments. • Stocks • Bonds • Mutual funds • Savings bonds • Retirement savings (e.g., Individual Retirement Account (IRA), Keogh, 401K) • Savings accounts (e.g., passbook, certificate of deposit)
H. Explain how banks bring savers and borrowers together.		H. Describe why there is a difference between interest rates for saving and borrowing.		H. Explain the impact of higher or lower interest rates for savers, borrowers, consumers and producers.		H. Evaluate benefits and costs of changes in interest rates to individuals and society.

XVIII. GLOSSARY

Barter:	The direct exchange of goods or services between people.
Bond:	A financial promise for an investment issued by a corporation or government with regular interest payments and repayment at a later date.
Capital resources:	The physical equipment used in the production of goods and services.
Cartels:	A group of sellers acting together in the market.
Circular flow:	The movement of resources, goods, and services through an economy. As a diagram, it can show how households and business firms interact with each other in the product and resource markets.
Command economy:	A system in which decisions are made largely by an authority such as a feudal lord or government planning agency.
Comparative advantage:	Economic theory that a country/individual should sell goods and services which it can produce at relatively lower costs and buy goods and services which it can produce at relatively higher costs.
Competition:	The rivalry among people and/or business firms for resources and/or consumers.
Consumer:	One who buys or rents goods or services and uses them.
Consumer Price Index:	The price index most commonly used to measure the impact of changes in prices on households; this index is based on a standard market basket of goods and services purchased by a typical urban family.
Corporation:	A business firm that is owned by stockholders and is a legal entity with rights to buy, sell and make contracts. Its chief advantage is that each owner’s liability is limited to the amount of money he or she has invested in the company.
Cost:	What is given up when a choice is made; monetary and/or non monetary.
Cost/benefit analysis:	The process of weighing all predicted costs against the predicted benefits of an economic choice.
Deflation:	A general decline in the price level.
Demand:	The different quantities of a resource, good or service that potential buyers are willing and able to purchase at various possible prices during a specific time period.
Depression:	A severe recession in terms of magnitude or length, or both.
Division of labor:	A method of organizing production whereby each worker specializes in part of the productive process.
Economic growth:	An increase in a society’s output.
Economic systems:	The ways societies organize to determine what goods and services should be produced, how goods and services should be produced and who will consume goods and services. Examples include traditional, command and market.
Economics:	The study of the behavior of individuals and institutions engaged in the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
Entrepreneur:	Individual who begins, manages and bears the risks of a business (e.g., Milton Hershey, F.W. Woolworth).
Equilibrium price:	The outlay at which quantity demanded equals quantity supplied; market clearing price.
Exchange rate:	The price of one country’s currency measured in terms of another country’s currency (e.g., American dollar in German mark, Japanese yen in Canadian dollar).
Federal Reserve System:	The ‘‘Central Bank’’ of the United States (consisting of the Board of Governors and 12 district banks) which controls monetary policy; sometimes referred to as ‘‘The Fed’’ or Federal Reserve.
Fiscal policy:	Government decisions on taxation and spending to achieve economic goals.
Flow resources:	Temporal energy forces that are neither renewable nor nonrenewable, but must be used as, when and where they occur or they are lost (e.g., wind, sunlight).
Gross Domestic Product:	The market value of the total output of final goods and services produced by an economy in a given time period, usually 1 year.
Goods:	Objects that can satisfy people’s wants.
Household:	The group of people living together under one roof; a group of individuals whose economic decision making is interrelated.
Human resources:	People’s intellectual and physical abilities.
Incentives:	Factors that motivate or influence human behavior.
Income:	Payments earned by people in exchange for providing resources used to produce goods and services.
Inflation:	A general rise in the price level.
Interdependence:	Ideas, goods and services in one area affect decisions and events in other areas reducing self-sufficiency.
Interest:	Payment made for the use of borrowed money.
Interest rate:	The price of borrowed money.
Labor force:	That part of the population which is employed or actively seeking employment.
Labor union:	An organization of workers who seek to improve their common interests.
Labor productivity:	The total output divided by the quantity of labor employed to produce it.
Law of demand:	The lower the price of a good or service, the greater the quantity that people will buy, all else held constant (e.g., incomes, tastes).
Law of supply:	The higher the price of a good or service, the greater the quantity that business will sell, all else held constant (e.g., resource costs, technology).
Loss:	The difference that arises when a firm’s total revenues are less than its total costs.
Macroeconomics:	Study of aggregate economic activity including how the economy works as a whole. Seeks to identify levels of National income, output, employment and prices.
Marginal analysis:	A decision making tool that weighs additional costs and benefits.
Market:	A place or process through which goods and services are exchanged.
Market economy:	An economic system in which decisions are made largely by the interactions of buyers and sellers.
Microeconomics:	Study of the behaviors of consumers, firms and determination of the market prices.
Mixed economy:	An economic system in which decisions are made by markets, government and tradition.
Monetary policy:	Government decisions on money supply and interest rates to achieve economic goals.
Money:	A medium of exchange.
Money supply:	The amount of liquid assets which exists in the economy at a given time (e.g., currency, checkable deposits, travelers’ checks).
Mutual fund:	An investment option that uses cash from a pool of savers to buy a wide range of securities.
Natural resources:	Anything found in nature that can be used to produce a product (e.g., land, water, coal).
Nonrenewable resources:	Finite elements that cannot be replaced once they are used (e.g., petroleum, minerals).
Opportunity cost:	The highest valued alternative given up when a decision is made.
Output:	The total amount of a commodity produced.
Partnership:	A business in which ownership is shared by two or more people who receive all the profits and rewards and bear all the losses and risks.
Price:	The amount people pay in exchange for unit of a particular good or service.
Price control:	Government restraint of prices to keep the cost of living down. It most usually happens in time of war, but there are also instances in peacetime.
Price index:	A measure of the average level of costs at one time compared to the average level of costs at another time.
Producer:	One who makes goods or services.
Productivity:	Amount of output per unit of input over a period of time. It is used to measure the efficiency with which inputs can be used.
Profit:	Total revenue minus total costs.
Progressive tax:	A levy for which the percentage of income used to pay the levy increases as the taxpayer’s income increases.
Proportional tax:	A levy for which the percentage of income used to pay the levy remains the same as the taxpayer’s income increases.
Public goods:	Goods and services provided by the government rather than by the private sector. Goods and services that more than one person can use without necessarily preventing others from using them.
Public policy:	A government’s course of action that guides present and future decisions.
Quantity demanded:	The amount of a good or service people are willing and able to purchase at a given price during a specific time period.
Quantity supplied:	The amount of a good or service people are willing and able to sell at a given price during a specific time period.
Quota:	A form of import protectionism where the total quantity of imports of a particular commodity is limited.
Recession:	A contraction in National production that lasts 6 months or longer. A recession might be marked by job layoffs and high unemployment, stagnant wages, reductions in retail sales and slowing of housing and car markets.
Regressive tax:	A levy for which the percentage of income used to pay the levy decreases as the taxpayer’s income increases.
Renewable resources:	Substances that can be regenerated if used carefully (e.g., fish, timber).
Resources:	Inputs used to produce goods and services; categories include natural, human and capital.
Scarcity:	An economic condition that exists when demand is greater than supply.
Services:	Actions that are valued by others.
Sole proprietorship:	A business owned by an individual who receives all the profits and rewards and bears all the losses and risks.
Specialization:	A form of division of labor in which each individual or firm concentrates its productive efforts on a single or limited number of activities.
Standard of living:	A measurement of an individual’s quality of life. A larger consumption of goods, services, and leisure is often assumed to indicate a higher standard of living.
Stock:	A certificate representing a share of ownership in a company.
Supply:	The different quantities of a resource, good or service that potential sellers are willing and able to sell at various possible prices during a specific time period.
Tariff:	A surcharge placed on imported goods and services. The purpose of a tariff is to protect domestic products from foreign competition.
Tertiary:	The third level of economic activity. It includes service and service-related industries.
Trade:	Voluntary exchange between two parties in which both parties benefit.
Trade balance:	The payments of a nation that deal with merchandise imports or exports.
Traditional economy:	An economic system in which decisions are made largely by repeating the actions from an earlier time or generation.
Unemployment rate:	The percentage of the labor force that is actively seeking employment.
Wants:	Desires that can be satisfied by consuming goods, services or leisure activities.

Academic Standards for Geography

XIX. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction…	XX.
THE ACADEMIC STANDARDS
Basic Geographic Literacy…	7.1.
A. Geographic Tools
B. Location of Places and Regions
The Physical Characteristics of Places and Regions…	7.2.
A. Physical Systems and Properties
B. Physical Processes
The Human Characteristics of Places and Regions…	7.3.
A. Population
B. Culture
C. Settlement
D. Economic Activity
E. Political Activity
The Interactions Between People and Places…	7.4.
A. Impact of Physical Systems on People
B. Impact of People on Physical Systems
Glossary…	XXI.

XX. INTRODUCTION

This document includes Academic Standards for Geography that describe what students should know and be able to do in four areas:

• 7.1. Basic Geographic Literacy

• 7.2. The Physical Characteristics of Places and Regions

• 7.3. The Human Characteristics of Places and Regions

• 7.4. The Interactions Between People and Places

The Geography Standards describe what students should know and be able to do at four grade levels (third, sixth, ninth and twelfth). They reflect the increasingly complex and sophisticated understanding of geography that students are expected to achieve as they progress through school. Throughout the standards, all grade levels must address the local-to-global progression (scales). Basic concepts found in lower grade levels must be developed more fully at higher grade levels.

Geography is the science of space and place on Earth’s surface. Its subject matter is the physical and human phenomena that make up the world’s environments and places. These standards build on using geographic tools as a means for asking and answering geographic questions; setting information into a range of spatial contexts; recognizing places and regions as human concepts; understanding the physical processes that have shaped Earth’s surface and the patterns resulting from those processes; identifying the relationships between people and environments; recognizing the characteristics and distribution of people and cultures on Earth’s surface; focusing on the spatial patterns of settlements and their resulting political structures; and exploring the networks of economic interdependence and the importance of resources.

At each grade level, instructional content should be selected to support the development of geographic understanding. In the primary grade levels (1-3), the emphasis should be on identifying the basic characteristics of the world (answering the what question); at the intermediate grade levels (4-6), the emphasis should be on describing spatial patterns of phenomena (answering the where and when questions); at the middle grade levels (7-9), the emphasis should be on explaining spatial patterns of phenomena (answering the how question); and at high school grade levels (10-12), the emphasis should be on analyzing spatial patterns of phenomena (answering the why question). Although the emphasis may focus on specific questions, these questions may be encountered at any grade level.

Geography is an integrative discipline that enables students to apply geography skills and knowledge to life situations at home, at work and in the community. Therefore, these standards should be cross-walked with those in Civics and Government, Economics and History to create an interdisciplinary view of the world. Topics and concepts in geography directly relate to standard statements in Environment and Ecology, Economics, Mathematics, Science and Technology and Civics and Government.

Teachers should employ the Five Fundamental Themes of Geography while proceeding through the Academic Standards for Geography. The relationship between the themes and the standards is clear. The standards describe what students should know and be able to do while the themes provide a clear conceptual basis for teachers and students to use in organizing their knowledge.

These are the Five Fundamental Themes of Geography:

Theme	Description
Location	The absolute and relative position of a place on Earth’s surface
Place	How physical and human characteristics define and distinguish a place
Human-Environ ment Interactions	How humans modify and adapt to natural settings
Movement	How people, ideas and materials move between and among locations
Regions	How an area displays unity in terms of physical and human characteristics

The academic standards for Geography consist of four standard categories (designated as 7.1., 7.2., 7.3., and 7.4.). Each category has two to five standard statements (designated by a capital letter). Most standard statements have bulleted items known as standard descriptors. The standard descriptors are items within the document to illustrate and enhance the standard statement. The categories, statements and descriptors are regulations. The descriptors may be followed by an ‘‘e.g.’’ The ‘‘e.g.’s’’ are examples to clarify what type of information could be taught. These are suggestions and the choice of specific content is a local decision as is the method of instruction.

Geography along with Civics and Government, Economics, and History are identified as Social Studies in Chapter 4. This identification is consistent with citizenship education in Chapter 49 and Chapter 354. Based on these regulations, Social Studies/Citizenship programs should include the four sets of standards as an entity in developing a scope and sequence for curriculum and planned instruction.

A glossary is included to assist the reader in clarifying terminology contained in the standards.

7.1. Basic Geographic Literacy
7.1.3. GRADE 3		7.1.6. GRADE 6		7.1.9. GRADE 9		7.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
A. Identify geographic tools and their uses. • Characteristics and purposes of different geographic representations • Maps and basic map elements • Globes • Graphs • Diagrams • Photographs • Geographic representations to display spatial information • Sketch maps • Thematic maps • Mental maps to describe the human and physical features of the local area		A. Describe geographic tools and their uses. • Basis on which maps, graphs and diagrams are created • Aerial and other photographs • Reference works • Field observations • Surveys • Geographic representations to display spatial information • Absolute location • Relative location • Flows (e.g., goods, people, traffic) • Topography • Historic events • Mental maps to organize an understanding of the human and physical features of Pennsylvania and the home county • Basic spatial elements for depicting the patterns of physical and human features		A. Explain geographic tools and their uses. • Development and use of geographic tools • Geographic information systems [GIS] • Population pyramids • Cartograms • Satellite-produced images • Climate graphs • Access to computer-based geographic data (e.g., Internet, CD-ROMs) • Construction of maps • Projections • Scale • Symbol systems • Level of generalization • Types and sources of data • Geographic representations to track spatial patterns • Weather • Migration • Environmental change (e.g., tropical forest reduction, sea-level changes)		A. Analyze data and issues from a spatial perspective using the appropriate geographic tools. • Spatial patterns of human features that change over time (e.g., intervening opportunity, distance decay, central place theory, locational preference) • Physical patterns of physical features that change over time (e.g., climate change, erosion, ecological invasion and succession) • Human and physical features of the world through mental maps

7.1. Basic Geographic Literacy
7.1.3. GRADE 3		7.1.6. GRADE 6		7.1.9. GRADE 9		7.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
		• Point, line, area, location, distance, scale • Map grids • Alpha-numeric system • Cardinal and intermediate directions		• Mental maps to organize and understand the human and physical features of the United States
B. Identify and locate places and regions. • Physical features • Continents and oceans • Major landforms, rivers and lakes in North America • Local community • Human features • Countries (i.e., United States, Mexico, Canada) • States (i.e., Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, West Virginia) • Cities (i.e., Philadelphia, Erie, Altoona, Pittsburgh, Scranton, Harrisburg, Johnstown, Allentown, Washington D.C., Baltimore, New York, Toronto, Cleveland • Local community • Regions as areas with unifying geographic characteristics • Physical regions (e.g., landform regions, climate regions, river basins)		B. Describe and locate places and regions. • Coordinate systems (e.g., latitude and longitude, time zones) • Physical features • In the United States (e.g., Great Lakes, Rocky Mountains, Great Plains) • In Pennsylvania (e.g., Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Appalachians) • Human features • Countries (e.g., United Kingdom, Argentina, Egypt) • Provinces (e.g., Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia) • Major human regions (e.g., Mid Atlantic, New England, Southwest) • States (e.g., California, Massachusetts, Florida) • Major cities (e.g., London, Los Angeles, Tokyo) • Counties (e.g., Lancaster, Lackawanna, Jefferson)		B. Explain and locate places and regions. • How regions are created to interpret Earth’s complexity (i.e., the differences among formal regions, functional regions, perceptual regions) • How characteristics contribute to regional changes (e.g., economic development, accessibility, demographic change) • How culture and experience influence perceptions of places and regions • How structures and alliances impact regions • Development (e.g., First vs. Third World, North vs. South) • Trade (e.g., NAFTA, the European Union) • International treaties (e.g., NATO, OAS)		B. Analyze the location of places and regions. • Changing regional characteristics (e.g., short- and long-term climate shifts; population growth or decline; political instability) • Criteria to define a region (e.g., the reshaping of south Florida resulting from changing migration patterns; the US-Mexico border changes as a function of NAFTA; metropolitan growth in the Philadelphia region) • Cultural change (e.g., influence on people’s perceptions of places and regions)

7.1. Basic Geographic Literacy
7.1.3. GRADE 3		7.1.6. GRADE 6		7.1.9. GRADE 9		7.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
• Human regions (e.g., neighborhoods, cities, states, countries)		• Townships (e.g., Dickinson, Lower Mifflin, Southampton) • Ways in which different people view places and regions (e.g., places to visit or to avoid) • Community connections to other places • Dependence and interdependence • Access and movement		• How regions are connected (e.g., watersheds and river systems, patterns of world trade, cultural ties, migration)
Basic Geography Literacy must include local-to-global progression (scales) for all students at all grade levels for the standard statements and their descriptors. Basic concepts introduced in lower grade levels must be developed more fully throughout higher grade levels. Portions of Basic Geography Literacy relate directly to the Mathematics Standards.

7.2 The Physical Characteristics of Places and Regions
7.2.3. GRADE 3		7.2.6. GRADE 6		7.2.9. GRADE 9		7.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. . .
A. Identify the physical characteristics of places and regions. • Physical properties • Landforms (e.g., plains, hills, plateaus and mountains) • Bodies of water (e.g., rivers, lakes, seas and oceans) • Weather and climate • Vegetation and animals • Earth’s basic physical systems • Lithosphere • Hydrosphere • Atmosphere • Biosphere		A. Describe the physical characteristics of places and regions. • Components of Earth’s physical systems (e.g., clouds, storms, relief and elevation [topography], tides, biomes, tectonic plates) • Comparison of the physical characteristics of different places and regions (e.g., soil, vegetation, climate, topography) • Climate types (e.g., marine west coast, humid continental, tropical wet and dry)		A. Explain the physical characteristics of places and regions including spatial patterns of Earth’s physical systems. • Climate regions • Landform regions		A. Analyze the physical characteristics of places and regions including the interrelationships among the components of Earth’s physical systems. • Biomes and ecosystem regions • Watersheds and river basins • World patterns of biodiversity
B. Identify the basic physical processes that affect the physical characteristics of places and regions. • Earth-sun relationships (i.e., seasons and length of daylight, weather and climate) • Extreme physical events (e.g., earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes)		B. Describe the physical processes that shape patterns on Earth’s surface. • Earth-sun relationships (i.e., differences between equinoxes and solstices, reasons they occur and their relationship to latitude) • Climate influences (e.g., elevation, latitude, nearby ocean currents) • Climate change, (e.g., global warming/cooling, decertification, glaciations) • Plate tectonics • Hydrologic cycle		B. Explain the dynamics of the fundamental processes that underlie the operation of Earth’s physical systems. • Wind systems • Water cycle • Erosion/deposition cycle • Plate tectonics • Ocean currents • Natural hazards		B. Analyze the significance of physical processes in shaping the character of places and regions. • Circulation of the oceans • Ecosystem processes • Atmospheric systems • Extreme natural events
The Physical Characteristics of Places and Regions must include local-to-global progression (scales) for all students at all grade levels for the standard statements and their descriptors. Basic concepts must be developed more fully throughout higher grade levels. Portions of Physical Characteristics of Places and Regions relate directly to Science and Technology and Environment and Ecology standards.

7.3 The Human Characteristics of Places and Regions
7.3.3. GRADE 3		7.3.6. GRADE 6		7.3.9. GRADE 9		7.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to. .
A. Identify the human characteristics of places and regions by their population characteristics. • The number and distribution of people in the local community • Human movement in the local community (e.g., mobility in daily life, migration)		A. Describe the human characteristics of places and regions by their population characteristics. • Spatial distribution, size, density and demographic characteristics of population at the county and state level. • Causes of human movement • Mobility (e.g., shopping, commuting, recreation) • Migration models (e.g., push/pull factors, barriers to migration)		A. Explain the human characteristics of places and regions by their population characteristics. • Spatial distribution, size, density and demographic characteristics of population at the state and National level • Demographic structure of a population (e.g., life expectancy, fertility rate, mortality rate, infant mortality rate, population growth rate, the demographic transition model) • Effects of different types and patterns of human movement • Mobility (e.g., travel for business) • Migration (e.g., rural to urban, short term vs. long term, critical distance)		A. Analyze the significance of human activity in shaping places and regions by their population characteristics: • Spatial distribution, size, density and demographic characteristics of population at the international level • Demographic trends and their impacts on patterns of population distribution (e.g., carrying capacity, changes in fertility, changes in immigration policy, the mobility transition model) • Impact of movement on human systems (e.g., refugees, guest workers, illegal aliens)
B. Identify the human characteristics of places and regions by their cultural characteristics. • Components of culture (e.g., language, belief systems and customs, social organizations, foods, ethnicity) • Ethnicity of people in the local community (e.g., customs, celebrations, languages, religions)		B. Describe the human characteristics of places and regions by their cultural characteristics. • Ethnicity of people at the county and state levels (e.g., customs, celebrations, languages, religions) • Spatial arrangement of cultures creates distinctive landscapes (e.g., cultural regions based on languages, customs, religion, building styles as in the Pennsylvania German region)		B. Explain the human characteristics of places and regions by their cultural characteristics. • Ethnicity of people at national levels (e.g., customs, celebrations, languages, religions) • Culture distribution (e.g., ethnic enclaves and neighborhoods) • Cultural diffusion (e.g., acculturation and assimilation, cultural revivals of language)		B. Analyze the significance of human activity in shaping places and regions by their cultural characteristics. • Cultural conflicts (e.g., over language (Canada), over political power (Spain), over economic opportunities (Mexico)) • Forces for cultural convergence (e.g., the diffusion of foods, fashions, religions, language)
C. Identify the human characteristics of places and regions by their settlement characteristics. • Types of settlements (e.g., villages, towns, suburbs, cities, metropolitan areas) • Factors that affect where people settle (e.g., water, resources, transportation)		C. Describe the human characteristics of places and regions by their settlement characteristics. • Current and past settlement patterns in the local area • Factors that affect the growth and decline of settlements (e.g., immigration, transportation development, depletion of natural resources, site and situation)		C. Explain the human characteristics of places and regions by their settlement characteristics. • Current and past settlement patterns in Pennsylvania and the United States • Forces that have re-shaped modern settlement patterns (e.g., central city decline, suburbanization, the development of transport systems) • Internal structure of cities (e.g., manufacturing zones, inner and outer suburbs, the location of infrastructure)		C. Analyze the significance of human activity in shaping places and regions by their settlement characteristics. • Description of current and past settlement patterns at the international scale (e.g., global cities) • Use of models of the internal structure of cities (e.g., concentric zone, sector, multiple nuclei) • Forces that have reshaped settlement patterns (e.g., commuter railroads, urban freeways, the development of megalopolis and edge cities)
D. Identify the human characteristics of places and regions by their economic activities. • Location factors in the spatial distribution of economic activities (e.g., market, transportation, workers, materials) • Producers of consumer products and services (e.g., bread, pizza, television, shopping malls) • Products of farms and factories at the local and regional level (e.g., mushrooms, milk, snack foods, furniture) • Spatial distribution of resources • Non-renewable resources • Renewable resources • Flow resources (e.g., water power, wind power)		D. Describe the human characteristics of places and regions by their economic activities. • Spatial distribution of economic activities in the local area (e.g., patterns of agriculture, forestry, mining, retailing, manufacturing, services) • Factors that influence the location and spatial distribution of economic activities (e.g., market size for different types of business, accessibility, modes of transportation used to move people, goods and materials) • Spatial distribution of resources and their relationship to population distribution • Historical settlement patterns and natural resource use (e.g.,		D. Explain the human characteristics of places and regions by their economic activities. • Spatial distribution of economic activities in Pennsylvania and the United States (e.g., patterns of agriculture, forestry, mining, retailing, manufacturing, services) • Factors that shape spatial patterns of economic activity both Nationally and internationally (e.g., comparative advantage in location of economic activities; changes in resource trade; disruption of trade flows) • Technological changes that affect the definitions of, access to, and use of natural resources (e.g., the role of exploration, extraction, use and depletion of resources)		D. Analyze the significance of human activity in shaping places and regions by their economic characteristics. • Changes in spatial distribution of economic activities at the global scale (e.g., patterns of agriculture, forestry, mining, retailing, manufacturing, services) • Forces that are reshaping business (e.g., the information economy, business globalization, the development of off-shore activities) • Effects of changes and movements in factors of production (e.g., resources, labor, capital)

7.3 The Human Characteristics of Places and Regions
7.3.3. GRADE 3		7.3.6. GRADE 6		7.3.9. GRADE 9		7.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to.
		waterpower sites along the FallLine) • Natural resource-based industries (e.g., agriculture, mining, fishing, forestry)
E. Identify the human characteristics of places and regions by their political activities. • Type of political units (e.g., townships, boroughs, towns, cities, counties, states, countries (nation-state)) • Political units in the local area		E. Describe the human characteristics of places and regions by their political activities. • Spatial pattern of political units in Pennsylvania • Functions of political units (e.g., counties, municipalities, townships, school districts, PA General Assembly districts (House and Senate), U.S. Congressional districts, states)		E. Explain the human characteristics of places and regions by their political activities. • Spatial pattern of political units in the United States • Geographic factors that affect decisions made in the United States (e.g., territorial expansion, boundary delineation, allocation of natural resources) • Political and public policies that affect geography (e.g., open space, urban development)		E. Analyze the significance of human activity in shaping places and regions by their political characteristics: • Spatial pattern of political units in the global system • Role of new political alliances on the international level (e.g., multinational organizations, worker’s unions, United Nations’ organizations) • Impact of political conflicts (e.g., secession, fragmentation, insurgencies, invasions)
The Human Characteristics of Places and Regions must include local-to-global progression (scales) for all students at all grade levels for the standard statements and their descriptors. Basic concepts found in lower grade levels must be developed more fully throughout higher grade levels. Portions of Human Characteristics of Places and Regions relate directly to the Civics and Government and Economics Standards.

7.4 The Interactions Between People and Places
7.4.3. GRADE 3		7.4.6. GRADE 6		7.4.9. GRADE 9		7.4.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
A. Identify the impacts of physical systems on people. • How people depend on, adjust to and modify physical systems on a local scale (e.g., soil quality and agriculture, snowfall and daily activities, drought and water use) • Ways in which natural hazards affect human activities (e.g., storms, lightning, flooding)		A. Describe the impacts of physical systems on people. • How people depend on, adjust to and modify physical systems on regional scale (e.g., coastal industries, development of coastal communities, flood control) • Ways in which people adjust to life in hazard-prone areas (e.g., California and earthquakes, Florida and hurricanes, Oklahoma and tornadoes)		A. Explain the impacts of physical systems on people. • How people depend on, adjust to and modify physical systems on National scale (e.g., soil conservation programs, projects of The Corps of Engineers) • Ways in which people in hazard-prone areas adjust their ways of life (e.g., building design in earthquake areas, dry-farming techniques in drought-prone areas)		A. Analyze the impacts of physical systems on people. • How people depend on, adjust to and modify physical systems on international scales (e.g., resource development of oil, coal, timber) • Ways in which people modify ways of life to accommodate different environmental contexts (e.g., building in permafrost areas; the role of air-conditioning in the United States South and Southwest; the development of enclosed spaces for movement in cold climates)
B. Identify the impacts of people on physical systems. • Effects of energy use (e.g., water quality, air quality, change in natural vegetation) • Ways humans change local ecosystems (e.g., land use, dams and canals on waterways, reduction and extinction of species)		B. Describe the impacts of people on physical systems. • Changing spatial patterns on Earth’s surface that result from human activities (e.g., lake desiccation as in the Aral Sea, construction of dikes, dams and storm surge barriers in the Netherlands, designation of State parks and forests throughout Pennsylvania) • Ways humans adjust their impact on the habitat (e.g., Endangered Species Act, replacement of wetlands, logging and replanting trees)		B. Explain the impacts of people on physical systems. • Forces by which people modify the physical environment (e.g., increasing population; new agricultural techniques; industrial processes and pollution) • Spatial effects of activities in one region on another region (e.g., scrubbers on power plants to clean air, transportation systems such as Trans-Siberian Railroad, potential effects of fallout from nuclear power plant accidents)		B. Analyze the impacts of people on physical systems. • How people develop international agreements to manage environmental issues (e.g., Rio de Janeiro Agreement, the Law of the Sea, the Antarctica Treaty) • How local and regional processes can have global effects (e.g., wind and hydroelectric power transmitted across regions, water use and irrigation for crop production) • Sustainability of resources (e.g., reforestation, conservation) • World patterns of resource distribution and utilization (e.g., oil trade, regional electrical grids)
The Interactions Between People and Places must include local to global scales for all students at all grade levels for the standard statements and their descriptors. Basic concepts found in lower grade levels must be developed more fully throughout higher grade levels.

XXI. GLOSSARY

Absolute location:	The position of a point on Earth’s surface that can usually be described by latitude and longitude. Another example of absolute location would be the use of a nine digit zip code and street address.
Acculturation:	The process of adopting the traits of a cultural group.
Assimilation:	The acceptance, by one culture group or community, of cultural traits associated with another.
Atmosphere:	The body of gases, aerosols and other materials that surrounds Earth and is held close by gravity. It extends about twelve miles from Earth’s surface.
Barriers to migration:	Factors that keep people from moving (e.g., lack of information about potential destination, lack of funds to cover the costs of moving, regulations that control migration).
Basic map elements:	Materials included on geographic representations. These include title, directions, date of map, mapmaker’s name, a legend and scale. Often a geographic grid, the source of information and sometimes an index of places on the map are also included.
Biomes:	A community of living organisms of a single major ecological region.
Biosphere:	The domain of Earth that includes all plant and animal life forms.
Boundary:	The limit or extent within which a system exists or functions, including a social group, a state or physical features.
Capital:	One of the factors of production of goods and services. Capital can be goods (e.g., factories and equipment, highways, information, communications systems) and/or funds (investment and working capital) used to increase production and wealth. Other factors are land, water and labor.
Cardinal directions:	The four main points of the compass; north, east, south and west.
Carrying capacity:	Maximum population that an area can support over time depending upon environmental conditions, human interventions and interdependence.
Central Place Theory:	The conceptual framework that explains the size, spacing and distribution of settlements and their economic relationships with their market areas.
Climate:	Long-term patterns and trends in weather elements and atmospheric conditions.
Climate graph (climagraph):	A diagram that combines average monthly temperature and precipitation data for a particular place.
Comparative advantage:	The specialization by a given area in the production of one or a few commodities for which it has a particular edge (e.g., labor quality, resources availability, production costs).
Concentric Zone Model:	A framework that proposes that urban functions and the associated land uses are arranged in rings that grow outward from a central area. One of three models developed to explain how cities and metropolitan areas are arranged internally. The other models are the Sector and the Multiple Nuclei.
Country:	Unit of political space often referred to as a state or nation-state.
Culture:	Learned behavior of people, which includes their belief systems and languages, their social relationships, their institutions and organizations and their material goods—food, clothing, buildings, tools and machines.
Cultural diffusion:	The spread of cultural elements from one culture to another.
Cultural landscape:	The human imprint on the physical environment; the humanized image as created or modified by people.
Demographic change:	Variation in population size, composition, rates of growth, density, fertility and mortality rates and patterns of migration.
Density:	The population or number of objects per unit area (e.g., per square kilometer or mile).
Decertification:	The spread of desert conditions in arid and semiarid regions resulting from a combination of climatic changes and increasing human pressures (e.g., overgrazing, removal of vegetation, cultivation of marginal land).
Desiccation:	See lake desiccation.
Developed country:	An area of the world that is technologically advanced, highly urbanized and wealthy and has generally evolved through both economic and demographic transitions.
Diffusion:	The spread of people, ideas, technology and products among places.
Distance decay:	The tendency for the acceptance of new ideas and technologies to decrease with distance from their source.
Earthquake:	Vibrations and shock waves caused by the sudden movement of tectonic plates along fracture zones, called faults, in Earth’s crust.
Ecosystem (ecological system):	A network formed by the interaction of all living organisms (plants, animals, humans) with each other and with the physical and chemical factors of the environment in which they live.
Elevation:	Height of a point or place above sea level (e.g., Mount Everest has an elevation of 29,028 feet above sea level).
Enclaves:	A country, territorial or culturally distinct unit enclosed within a larger country or community.
Environment:	Everything in and on Earth’s surface and its atmosphere within which organisms, communities or objects exist.
Equilibrium:	The point in the operation of a system when driving forces and resisting forces are in balance.
Equinoxes:	The two days during the calendar year (usually September 23 and March 21) when all latitudes have twelve hours of both daylight and darkness and the sun is directly overhead at the Equator.
Erosional processes:	The removal and transportation of weathered (loose) rock material by water, wind, waves and glaciers. Deposition is the end result of erosion and occurs when transported material is dropped.
Fall line:	A linear connection joining the waterfalls on numerous rivers and streams that marks the point where each river and stream descends from the upland and the limit of the navigability of each river (e.g., the narrow boundary zone between the coastal plain and the Piedmont in the Eastern United States where there are falls and rapids on streams and rivers as they drop from the more resistant rocks of the Piedmont onto the softer rocks of the coastal plain).
Fertility rate:	A measure of the number of children a woman will have during her child-bearing years (15 to 49 years of age) in comparison to the adult female population in a particular place.
Formal region:	An area defined by the uniformity or homogeneity of certain characteristics (e.g., precipitation, landforms, subculture).
Functional region:	An area united by a strong core (node) or center of human population and activity (e.g., banking linkages between large cities and smaller cities and towns).
Geographic Information System:	A geographic database that contains information about the distribution of physical and human characteristics of places. In order to test hypotheses, maps of one characteristic or a combination can be produced from the database to analyze the data relationships.
Geographic scale:	The size of Earth’s surface being studied. Study areas vary from local to regional to global. Scale also refers to the relationship between the size of space on a map and the size of that space on Earth’s surface. Maps are referred to as large scale if they are of smaller (local) areas and small scale if they represent much or all of the Earth’s surface. Map scale is expressed as a bar graph or representative fraction.
Global warming:	The theory that Earth’s atmosphere is gradually warming due to the buildup of certain gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, which are released by human activities. The increased levels of these gases cause added heat energy from Earth to be absorbed by the atmosphere instead of being lost in space.
Globe:	A scale model of Earth that correctly represents area, relative size and shape of physical features, distance between points and true compass direction.
Grid:	A pattern of lines on a chart or map, such as those representing latitude and longitude, which helps determine absolute location and assists in the analysis of distribution patterns.
Human features:	Tangible and intangible ideas associated with the culture, society and economy of places or areas. These include the spatial arrangement of land uses including transportation, the design of buildings and the nature and timing of activities that people conduct in these spaces.
Hydroelectric power:	Electrical energy generated by the force of falling water which rotates turbines housed in power plants in dams on rivers.
Hydrosphere:	The water realm of Earth which includes water contained in the oceans, lakes, rivers, ground, glaciers and water vapor in the atmosphere.
Infant mortality rate:	The annual number of deaths among infants under 1 year of age for every 1,000 live births. It usually provides an indication of health care levels. The United States, for example, has a 1994 rate of 8.3 infant deaths per 1,000 live births while Angola has a rate of 137 infant deaths per 1,000 births.
Interdependence:	Ideas, goods and services in one area affect decisions and events in other areas reducing self-sufficiency.
Intermediate directions:	The points of the compass that fall between north and east, north and west, south and east, south and west (e.g., NE, NW, SE, SW).
Intervening opportunity:	An alternate area that is a source of a product or service or a destination in the case of migration.
Lake desiccation:	The reduction in water level (drying out) of an inland water body.
Landform:	The shape, form or nature of a specific physical feature of Earth’s surface (e.g., plain, hill, plateau, mountain).
Land use:	The range of uses of Earth’s surface made by humans. Uses are classified as urban, rural, agricultural, forested, etc. with more specific sub-classifications useful for specific purposes (e.g., low-density residential, light industrial, nursery crops).
Life expectancy:	The average number of remaining years a person can expect to live under current mortality levels in a society. Life expectancy at birth is the most common use of this measure.
Lithosphere:	The uppermost portion of the solid Earth including soil, land and geologic formations.
Location:	The position of a point on Earth’s surface expressed by means of a grid (absolute) or in relation (relative) to the position of other places.
Map:	A graphic representation of a portion of Earth that is usually drawn to scale on a flat surface.
Materials:	Raw or processed substances that are used in manufacturing (secondary economic activities). Most substances used in factories are already manufactured to some degree and come from other factories rather than from sources of raw materials.
Megalopolis:	The intermingling of two or more large metropolitan areas into a continuous or almost continuous built-up urban complex; sometimes referred to as a conurbation.
Mental map:	A geographic representation which conveys the cognitive image a person has of an area, including knowledge of features and spatial relationships as well as the individual’s perceptions and attitudes regarding the place; also known as a cognitive map.
Metropolitan area:	The Federal Office of Management and Budget’s designation for the functional area surrounding and including a central city; has a minimum population of 50,000; is contained in the same county as the central city; and includes adjacent counties having at least 15% of their residents working in the central city’s county.
Migration:	The act or process of people moving from one place to another with the intent of staying at the destination permanently or for a relatively long period of time.
Multinational organizations:	An association of nations aligned around a common economic or political cause (e.g., the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, the Organization of American States).
Multiple Nuclei Model:	A representation of urban structure based on the idea that the functional areas (land use) of cities develop around various points rather than just one in the Central Business District.
Municipality:	A political unit incorporated for local self-government (e.g., Pennsylvania’s boroughs, townships).
NAFTA:	North American Free Trade Agreement. NAFTA is an accord to establish clear and mutually advantageous rules governing commerce among Canada, Mexico and the United States.
NATO:	North Atlantic Treaty Organization. An international transatlantic partnership consisting of various European states, the United States and Canada, which was designed through cooperation, consultation and collective defense to maintain peace and promote stability throughout Europe.
Nation:	A cultural concept for a group of people bound together by a strong sense of shared values and cultural characteristics including language, religion and common history.
Natural hazard:	An event in the physical environment, such as a hurricane or earthquake, that is destructive to human life and property.
Natural resource:	An element of the physical environment that people value and use to meet a need for fuel, food, industrial product or something else of value.
Nonrenewable resource:	A finite element that cannot be replaced once it is used (e.g., petroleum, minerals).
Ocean currents:	The regular and consistent horizontal flow of water in the oceans, usually in response to persistent patterns of circulation in the atmosphere.
OAS:	Organization of American States. An international governmental organization formed by the nation-states of North America and South America for security and the protection of mutual interests.
OPEC:	The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; international cartel of thirteen nations designed to promote collective pricing of petroleum, unified marketing policies and regulation of petroleum extraction.
Perceptual region:	Ideas that people have about the character of areas based on impressions from a variety of sources of information including other individuals and media. Mental maps can be used to access these ideas to find out what people think about particular areas.
Physical feature:	An aspect of a place or area that derives from the physical environment.
Physical process:	A course or method of operation that produces, maintains or alters Earth’s physical system (e.g., glacial eroding, depositing landforms).
Place:	An area with distinctive human and physical characteristics; these characteristics give it meaning and character and distinguish it from other areas.
Plate tectonics:	The theory that Earth’s surface is composed of rigid slabs or plates (see tectonic plates). The divergence, convergence and slipping side-by-side of the different plates is responsible for present-day configurations of continents, ocean basins and major mountain ranges and valley systems.
Pollution:	The direct or indirect process resulting from human action by which any part of the environment is made potentially or actually unhealthy, unsafe or hazardous to the welfare of the organisms which live in it.
Population density:	The number of individuals occupying an area derived from dividing the number of people by the area they occupy (e.g., 2,000 people divided by ten square miles = 200 people per square mile).
Population pyramid:	A bar graph showing the distribution by gender and age of a country’s population.
Primary economic activity:	The production of naturally existing or culturally improved resources (i.e., agriculture, ranching, forestry, fishing, extraction of minerals and ores).
Pull factors:	In migration theory, the social, political, economic and environmental attractions of new areas that draw people away from their previous location.
Push factors:	In migration theory, the social, political, economic and environmental forces that drive people from their previous location.
Region:	An area with one or more common characteristics or features that give it a measure of consistency and make it different from surrounding areas.
Relative location:	The site of a place or region in relation to other places or regions (e.g., northwest, downstream).
Renewable resource:	A substance that can be regenerated if used carefully (e.g., fish, timber).
Resource:	An aspect of the physical environment that people value and use to meet a need for fuel, food, industrial product or something else of value.
Satellite image:	A representation produced by a variety of sensors (e.g., radar, microwave detectors, scanners) that measure and record electromagnetic radiation. The collected data are turned into digital form for transmission to ground receiving stations. The data can be reconverted into imagery in a form resembling a photograph.
Scale:	On maps the relationship or ratio between a linear measurement on a map and the corresponding distance on Earth’s surface. For example, the scale 1:1,000,000 means one unit (inch or centimeter) on the map represents 1,000,000 of the same units on Earth’s surface. Also refers to the size of places or regions being studied.
Sector Model:	A theory of urban structure that recognizes the impact of transportation on land prices within the city and the resulting tendency for functional areas to be organized into sectors.
Secondary economic activity:	Processing of raw and manufactured materials into products with added value.
Settlement pattern:	The spatial distribution and arrangement of human habitations (e.g., rural, urban).
Site:	The specific location where something may be found including its physical setting (e.g., on a floodplain).
Situation:	The general location of something in relation to other places or features of a larger region (e.g., in the center of a group of cities).
Soil:	Unconsolidated material found at the surface of Earth, which is divided into layers (or horizons) characterized by the accumulation or loss of organic and inorganic compounds. Loam types and depths vary greatly over Earth’s surface and are very much influenced by climate, organisms, rock type, local relief, time and human activity.
Spatial:	Pertains to space on Earth’s surface.
Spatial distribution:	The distribution of physical and human elements on Earth’s surface.
Spatial organization:	The arrangement on Earth’s surface of physical and human elements.
Suburbanization:	The shift in population from living in higher density urban areas to lower density developments on the edge of cities.
System:	A collection of entities that are linked and interrelated (e.g., the hydrologic cycle, cities, transportation modes).
Technology:	Application of knowledge to meet the goals, goods and services needed and desired by people.
Tectonic plates:	Sections of Earth’s rigid crust that move as distinct units on a plastic-like ledge (mantle) on which they rest. As many as twenty different plates have been identified, but only seven are considered to be major (e.g., Eurasian Plate, South American Plate).
Thematic map:	A geographic representation of a specific spatial distribution, theme or topic (e.g., population density, cattle production, climates of the world).
Time zone:	A division of Earth, usually 15 degrees longitude, within which the time at the central meridian of the division represents the whole division.
Topography:	The shape of Earth’s surface.
Water cycle:	The continuous circulation of water from the oceans, through the air, to the land and back to the sea. Water evaporates from oceans, lakes, rivers and the land surfaces and transpires from vegetation. It condenses into clouds in the atmosphere that may result in precipitation returning water to the land. Water then seeps into the soil or flows out to sea completing the circulation. Also known as Hydrologic Cycle.

Academic Standards for History

XXII. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction…	XXIII.
THE ACADEMIC STANDARDS
Historical Analysis and Skills Development…	8.1.
A. Chronological Thinking
B. Historical Comprehension
C. Historical Interpretation
D. Historical Research
Pennsylvania History…	8.2.
A. Contributions of Individuals and Groups
B. Documents, Artifacts and Historical Places
C. Influences of Continuity and Change
D. Conflict and Cooperation Among Groups
United States History…	8.3.
A. Contributions of Individuals and Groups
B. Documents, Artifacts and Historical Places
C. Influences of Continuity and Change
D. Conflict and Cooperation Among Groups
World History…	8.4.
A. Contributions of Individuals and Groups
B. Documents, Artifacts and Historical Places
C. Influences of Continuity and Change
D. Conflict and Cooperation Among Groups
Glossary…	XXIV.

XXIII. INTRODUCTION

This document includes Academic Standards for History that describe what students should know and be able to do in four areas:

• 8.1. Historical Analysis and Skills Development

• 8.2. Pennsylvania History

• 8.3. United States History

• 8.4. World History

The History Standards describe what students should know and be able to do at four grade levels (third, sixth, ninth and twelfth). They reflect an understanding of chronological events and the application of historical thinking skills in viewing the human record. These academic standards provide an organizing content for schools.

The Academic Standards for History are grounded in the Public School Code of 1949 which directs ‘‘... study in the history and government of that portion of America which has become the United States of America, and of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania . . .’’. Chapter 4—Academic Standards and Assessment in § 4.21 (relating to elementary education; primary and intermediate levels) reinforces the School Code by indicating that the history of the United States and the history of the Commonwealth must be taught once by the end of elementary school. In addition, § 4.22 (relating to middle level education) indicates that planned instruction in the history and cultures of the United States, the Commonwealth and world shall be provided. Chapter 4 also states that planned instruction shall be provided in the history and cultures of the United States, the Commonwealth and world in § 4.23 (relating to high school education).

To support the intent of the Public School Code and Chapter 4, this document creates four standard categories. The four standard categories were designed to meld historical thinking (8.1. Historical Analysis and Skills Development) with historical understanding (8.2. Pennsylvania History, 8.3. United States History, and 8.4. World History) to describe what students should know and be able to do.

Standard category 8.1. Historical Analysis and Skill Development provides the basis for learning the content within the other three standard categories. The intent of the history standards is to instill in each student an ability to comprehend chronology, develop historical comprehension, evaluate historical interpretation and to understand historical research. One should not view these standards as a list of facts to recall, rather as stated in the opening phrase to the Pennsylvania, United States and World standard categories, ‘‘Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to analyze the interaction of cultural, economic, geographic, political and social relations.’’

These standards provide a history framework to permit every school and teacher to create planned instruction. The content within this document is general and does not represent a course or even a portion thereof. Every school is encouraged to move beyond these standards. These standards are merely a starting point for the study of history. Planned instruction to meet these standards is required; however, the methodology, resources and time are not recommended nor implied.

History is a discipline that interprets and analyzes the past. It is a narrative—a story. In order to tell the story it is not sufficient to simply recall facts; it is also necessary to understand the context of the time and place and to apply historical thinking skills. It is with this concept established, that the content delineated in Pennsylvania, United States and World histories should be approached. Having established the need to move beyond recall, it is the intent of these standards to give students throughout Pennsylvania a common cultural literacy.

Pennsylvania, United States, and World History standard categories use the same four standard statements to guide teachers in developing planned instruction. The four standard statements are: (A) Political and Cultural Contributions of Individuals and Groups; (B) Primary Documents, Material Artifacts and Historical Places; (C) How Continuity and Change Has Influenced History; (D) Conflict and Cooperation Among Social Groups and Organizations. The chart, Four Standard Statements within the Academic Standards for History: An Overview outlines standard statements and descriptors.

Although the standard statements are similar across grade levels and standard categories, the degree of comprehension, changes in content and shifts in chronology differ. Although different grade levels outline different chronological periods within the standards, it is intended that the specified chronological eras be linked to past learnings and that all eras be linked to the present. Linking to past learnings and the present is important, but so is addressing the standard statements in more depth. Therefore the following chronological time periods for the standard categories are established for the standard categories.

Pennsylvania and United States History		World History
Grades 1-3	Beginnings to Present	Grades 1-3	Beginnings to Present
Grades 4-6	Beginnings to 1824	Grades 4-6	Beginnings to Present
Grades 7-9	1787 to 1914	Grades 7-9	Beginnings to 1500
Grades 10-12	1890 to Present	Grades 10-12	1450 to Present

Districts are encouraged to delineate each chronological period into less expansive historical eras within their planned instruction. The content listed in grade levels 1-3, 4-6, 7-9 and 10-12 should be age appropriate for the students in those grade levels and the reader should interpret each standard descriptor in that manner.

The Academic Standards for History consist of four standard categories (designated as 8.1., 8.2., 8.3., and 8.4.). Each category has four standard statements (designated A, B, C, and D). Most standard statements have bulleted items known as standard descriptors. The standard descriptors are items within the document to illustrate and enhance the standard statement. The categories, statements and descriptors are the regulations. The descriptors many times are followed by an ‘‘e.g..’’ The ‘‘e.g.’s’’ are examples to clarify what type of information could be taught. These are suggestions and the choice of specific content is a local decision as is the method of instruction.

History along with civics and government, economics and geography are identified as social studies in Chapter 4. This identification is consistent with citizenship education in Chapters 49 and 354 (relating to certification of professional personnel; and preparation of professional educators). Based on these regulations, social studies/citizenship programs should include the four sets of standards as an entity in developing a scope and sequence for curriculum and planned instruction.

A glossary is included to assist the reader in understanding terminology contained in the standards.

Four Standard Statements within the Academic Standards for History: An Overview
Political and Cultural Contributions of Individuals and Groups • Inhabitants (cultures, subcultures, groups) • Political Leaders (monarchs, governors, elected officials) • Military Leaders (generals, noted military figures) • Cultural and Commercial Leaders (entrepreneurs, corporate executives, artists, entertainers, writers) • Innovators and Reformers (inventors, philosophers, religious leaders, social change agents, improvers of technology)	How Continuity and Change Have Influenced History • Belief Systems and Religions (ideas, beliefs, values) • Commerce and Industry (jobs, trade, environmental change, labor systems, entertainment) • Innovations (ideas, technology, methods and processes) • Politics (political party systems, administration of government, rules, regulations and laws, political and judicial interpretation) • Transportation (methods of moving people and goods over time, transportation routes, circulation systems) • Settlement Patterns and Expansion (population density and diversity, settlement types, land use, colonization) • Social Organization (social structure, identification of social groups, families, groups and communities, education, school population, suffrage, civil rights) • Women’s Movement (changing roles of women, social and political movements, breaking barriers, role models)
Primary Documents, Material Artifacts and Historical Places • Documents, Writings and Oral Traditions (government documents, letters and diaries, fiction and non-fiction works, newspapers and other media, folklore) • Artifacts, Architecture and Historic Places (historic sites and places, museums and museum collections, official and popular cultural symbols, material culture)	Conflict and Cooperation Among Social Groups and Organizations • Domestic Instability (political unrest, natural and man-made disasters, genocide) • Ethnic and Racial Relations (racism and xenophobia, ethnic and religious prejudices, collective and individual actions) • Immigration and Migration (causes of population shifts, xenophobia, intercultural activity) • Labor Relations (strikes and collective bargaining, working conditions over time, labor/management identity) • Military Conflicts (causes, conduct and impact of military conflicts, wars and rebellions)
Each standard statement outlines its respective standard descriptors. Each standard descriptor suggests content that may be addressed. These are not all encompassing and local planned instruction is not limited to these examples.

8.1. Historical Analysis and Skills Development
8.1.3. GRADE 3		8.1.6. GRADE 6		8.1.9. GRADE 9		8.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
A. Understand chronological thinking and distinguish between past, present and future time. • Calendar time • Time lines • Continuity and change • Events (time and place)		A. Understand chronological thinking and distinguish between past, present and future time. • Calendar time • Time lines • People and events in time • Patterns of continuity and change • Sequential order • Context for events		A. Analyze chronological thinking. • Difference between past, present and future • Sequential order of historical narrative • Data presented in time lines • Continuity and change • Context for events		A. Evaluate chronological thinking. • Sequential order of historical narrative • Continuity and change • Context for events knowledge and skills needed to . . .
B. Develop an understanding of historical sources. • Data in historical maps • Visual data from maps and tables • Mathematical data from graphs and tables • Author or historical source		B. Explain and analyze historical sources. • Literal meaning of a historical passage • Data in historical and contemporary maps, graphs and tables • Author or historical source • Multiple historical perspectives • Visual evidence • Mathematical data from graphs and tables		B. Analyze and interpret historical sources. • Literal meaning of historical passages • Data in historical and contemporary maps, graphs, and tables • Different historical perspectives • Data from maps, graphs and tables • Visual data presented in historical evidence		B. Synthesize and evaluate historical sources. • Literal meaning of historical passages • Data in historical and contemporary maps, graphs and tables • Different historical perspectives • Data presented in maps, graphs and tables • Visual data presented in historical evidence

8.1. Historical Analysis and Skills Development
8.1.3. GRADE 3		8.1.6. GRADE 6		8.1.9. GRADE 9		8.1.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to . . .
C. Understand fundamentals of historical interpretation. • Difference between fact and opinion • The existence of multiple points of view • Illustrations in historical stories • Causes and results		C. Explain the fundamentals of historical interpretation. • Difference between fact and opinion • Multiple points of view • Illustrations in historical stories • Causes and results • Author or source of historical narratives		C. Analyze the fundamentals of historical interpretation. • Fact versus opinion • Reasons/causes for multiple points of view • Illustrations in historical documents and stories • Causes and results • Author or source used to develop historical narratives • Central issue		C. Evaluate historical interpretation of events. • Impact of opinions on the perception of facts • Issues and problems in the past • Multiple points of view • Illustrations in historical stories and sources • Connections between causes and results • Author or source of historical narratives’ points of view • Central issue
D. Understand historical research. • Event (time and place) • Facts, folklore and fiction • Formation of historical question • Primary sources • Secondary sources • Conclusions (e.g., storytelling, role playing, diorama)		D. Describe and explain historical research. • Historical events (time and place) • Facts, folklore and fiction • Historical questions • Primary sources • Secondary sources • Conclusions (e.g., simulations, group projects, skits and plays)		D. Analyze and interpret historical research. • Historical event (time and place) • Facts, folklore and fiction • Historical questions • Primary sources • Secondary sources • Conclusions (e.g., History Day projects, mock trials, speeches) • Credibility of evidence		D. Synthesize historical research. • Historical event (time and place) • Facts, folklore and fiction • Historical questions • Primary sources • Secondary sources • Conclusions (e.g., Senior Projects, research papers, debates) • Credibility of evidence Pennsylvania History, 8.3. United States History and 8.4. World History.
Historical Analysis and Skill Development are learned through and applied to the standards statements and their descriptors for 8.2 Pennsylvania History, 8.3 United States History and 8.4 World History

8.2. Pennsylvania History
8.2.3. GRADE 3		8.2.6. GRADE 6		8.2.9. GRADE 9		8.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to analyze cultural, economic, geographic, political and social relations to . . .
A. Understand the political and cultural contributions of individuals and groups to Pennsylvania history. • William Penn • Benjamin Franklin • Pennsylvanians impacting American Culture (e.g., John Chapman, Richard Allen, Betsy Ross, Mary Ludwig Hayes, Rachel Carson, Elizabeth Jane Cochran, Marian Anderson) • Local historical figures in municipalities and counties.		A. Identify and explain the political and cultural contributions of individuals and groups to Pennsylvania history from Beginnings to 1824. • Inhabitants (e.g., Native Americans, Europeans, Africans) • Military Leaders (e.g., Anthony Wayne, Oliver H. Perry, John Muhlenberg) • Political Leaders (e.g., William Penn, Hannah Penn, Benjamin Franklin) • Cultural and Commercial Leaders (e.g., Robert Morris, John Bartram, Albert Gallatin) • Innovators and Reformers (e.g., Society of Friends, Richard Allen, Sybilla Masters)		A. Analyze the political and cultural contributions of individuals and groups to Pennsylvania history from 1787 to 1914. • Political Leaders (e.g., James Buchanan, Thaddeus Stevens, Andrew Curtin) • Military Leaders (e.g., George Meade, George McClellan, John Hartranft) • Cultural and Commercial Leaders (e.g., John J. Audubon, Rebecca Webb Lukens, Stephen Foster) • Innovators and Reformers (e.g., George Westinghouse, Edwin Drake, Lucretia Mott)		A. Evaluate the political and cultural contributions of individuals and groups to Pennsylvania history from 1890 to Present. • Political Leaders (e.g., Gifford Pinchot, Genevieve Blatt, K. Leroy Irvis) • Military Leaders (e.g., Tasker H. Bliss, Henry ‘‘Hap’’ Arnold, George C. Marshall) • Cultural and Commercial Leaders (e.g., Milton Hershey, Marian Anderson, Fred Rogers) • Innovators and Reformers (e.g., Frank Conrad, Rachel Carson, Joseph Rothrock)
B. Identify and describe primary documents, material artifacts and historic sites important in Pennsylvania history. • Documents, Writings and Oral Traditions (e.g., Penn’s Charter, Pennsylvania ‘‘Declaration of Rights’) • Artifacts, Architecture and Historic Places (e.g., Local historical sites, museum collections, Independence Hall) • Liberty Bell • Official Commonwealth symbols (e.g., tree, bird, dog, insect)		B. Identify and explain primary documents, material artifacts and historic sites important in Pennsylvania history from Beginnings to 1824. • Documents, Writings and Oral Traditions (e.g., Charter of Privileges, The Gradual Abolition of Slavery Act of 1780, Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer) • Artifacts, Architecture and Historic Places (e.g., Conestoga Wagon, Pennsylvania rifle, Brig Niagara)		B. Identify and analyze primary documents, material artifacts and historic sites important in Pennsylvania history from 1787 to 1914. • Documents, Writings and Oral Traditions (e.g., Pennsylvania Constitutions of 1838 and 1874, The ‘‘Gettysburg Address,’’ The Pittsburgh Survey) • Artifacts, Architecture and Historic Places (e.g., Gettysburg, Eckley Miners’ Village, Drake’s Well)		B. Identify and evaluate primary documents, material artifacts and historic sites important in Pennsylvania history from 1890 to Present. • Documents, Writings and Oral Traditions (e.g., Constitution of 1968, Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, Pennsylvania historical markers) • Artifacts, Architecture and Historic Places (e.g., 28th Division Shrine, Fallingwater, Levittown, Allegheny Ridge heritage corridor)
C. Identify and describe how continuity and change have influenced Pennsylvania history. • Belief Systems and Religions (e.g., Native Americans, early settlers, contemporary religions) • Commerce and Industry (e.g., jobs, trade, environmental change) • Innovations (e.g., technology, ideas, processes) • Politics (e.g., rules, regulations, laws) • Settlement Patterns (e.g., farms, towns, rural communities, cities) • Social Organization (e.g., relationships of individuals, families, groups, communities; ability to be educated) • Transportation (e.g., methods of moving people and goods over time) • Women’s Movement (e.g., changes in roles and rights over time)		C. Identify and explain how continuity and change have influenced Pennsylvania history from the Beginnings to 1824. • Belief Systems and Religions (e.g., Native Americans, Quakers) • Commerce and Industry (e.g., iron production, sailing, fur trade) • Innovations (e.g., steam boat, Conestoga Wagon) • Politics (e.g., The Mason-Dixon Line, Pennsylvania’s acquisition and detachment of the ‘‘lower three counties,’’ movements of State capital) • Settlement Patterns (e.g., native settlements, Westward expansion, development of towns) • Social Organization (e.g., trade and development of cash economy, African Methodist Episcopal Church founded, schools in the colony)		C. Identify and analyze how continuity and change have influenced Pennsylvania history from 1787 to 1914. • Belief Systems and Religions (e.g., Ephrata Cloister, Harmonists, Amish, immigrant influences) • Commerce and Industry (e.g., mining coal, producing iron, harvesting timber) • Innovations (e.g., John Roebling’s steel cable, steel-tipped plow, improved techniques for making iron, steel and glass) • Politics (e.g., Fugitive Slave Act reaction, canal system legislation, The Free School Act of 1834) • Settlement Patterns (e.g., farms and growth of urban centers)		C. Identify and evaluate how continuity and change have influenced Pennsylvania history from the 1890s to Present. • Belief Systems and Religions (e.g., Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism) • Commerce and Industry (e.g., work of defense industries, rise and decline of the steel industry, increase of service industries) • Innovations (e.g., polio vaccine, air pollution examined, nuclear power plants) • Politics (e.g., Great Depression special legislative session, creation of the state income tax) • Settlement Patterns (e.g., growth and decline of cities, coal towns, Pittsburgh Renaissance)

8.2. Pennsylvania History
8.2.3. GRADE 3		8.2.6. GRADE 6		8.2.9. GRADE 9		8.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to analyze cultural, economic, geographic, political and social relations to . . .
		• Transportation (e.g., trade routes, turnpikes, post roads) • Women’s Movement (e.g., voting qualifications, role models)		• Social Organization (e.g., the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876, prohibition of racial discrimination in schools) • Transportation (e.g., canals, National Road, Thompson’s Horseshoe Curve) • Women’s Movement (e.g., work of the Equal Rights League of Pennsylvania)		• Social Organization (e.g., creation of the State Soil Conservation Commission, First Amendment challenges to education, social services) • Transportation (e.g., Pennsylvania Turnpike, Interstate highways, international airports) • Women’s Movement (e.g., League of Women Voters, Commission for Women)

8.2. Pennsylvania History
8.2.3. GRADE 3		8.2.6. GRADE 6		8.2.9. GRADE 9		8.2.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to analyze cultural, economic, geographic, political and social relations to . . .
D. Identify and describe conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations in Pennsylvania history. • Domestic Instability (e.g., political, economic and geographic impact on daily activities) • Ethnic and Racial Relations (e.g., treatment of various ethnic and racial groups in history) • Labor Relations (e.g., working conditions, over time) • Immigration (e.g., diverse groups inhabiting the state) • Military Conflicts (e.g., struggle for control)		D. Identify and explain conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations in Pennsylvania history from Beginnings to 1824. • Domestic Instability (e.g., religious diversity, toleration and conflicts, incursion of the Iroquois) • Ethnic and Racial Relations (e.g., Penn’s Treaties with Indians, the Underground Railroad, the abolition of slavery) • Labor Relations (e.g., indentured servants, working conditions) • Immigration (e.g., Germans, Irish) • Military Conflicts (e.g., Dutch, Swedish and English struggle for control of land, Wyoming Massacre, The Whiskey Rebellion)		D. Identify and analyze conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations in Pennsylvania history from 1787 to 1914. • Domestic Instability (e.g., impact of war, 1889 Johnstown Flood) • Ethnic and Racial Relations (e.g., Christiana riots, disenfranchisement and restoration of suffrage for African-Americans, Carlisle Indian School) • Labor Relations (e.g., National Trade Union, The ‘‘Molly Maguires,’’ Homestead steel strike) • Immigration (e.g., Anti-Irish Riot of 1844, new waves of immigrants) • Military Conflicts (e.g., Battle of Lake Erie, the Mexican War, the Civil War)		D. Identify and evaluate conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations in Pennsylvania history from 1890 to Present. • Domestic Instability (e.g., The Great Depression, Three-Mile Island nuclear accident, floods of 1936, 1972 and 1977) • Ethnic and Racial Relations (e.g., segregation, desegregation, racial profiling) • Labor Relations (e.g., strikes, work stoppages, collective bargaining) • Immigration (e.g., increased immigration from Europe, migration of African-Americans from the South, influx of Hispanic and Asian peoples) • Military Conflicts (e.g., World War I, World War II, Persian Gulf War)
Standard Category 8.1. Historical Analysis and Skills Development should be applied to the above standard statements and descriptors. Suggested chronology for grade levels 4-6, 7-9 and 10-12 focus on a particular century; however, instruction is encouraged that draws on prior and later events in history so that students may develop a seamless view of the world.

8.3. United States History
8.3.3. GRADE 3		8.3.6. GRADE 6		8.3.9. GRADE 9		8.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to analyze cultural, economic, geographic, political and social relations to . . .
A. Identify contributions of individuals and groups to United States history. • George Washington • Thomas Jefferson • Abraham Lincoln • Theodore Roosevelt • Franklin D. Roosevelt • Individuals who are role models (e.g., Abigail Adams, Sacajawea, Frederick Douglass, Clara Barton, Jackie Robinson, Rosa Parks, Archbishop Patrick Flores, Jamie Escalante, Sally Ride, Tiger Woods, Cal Ripken, Jr., Sammy Sosa)		A. Identify and explain the political and cultural contributions of individuals and groups to United States history from Beginnings to 1824. • Native Americans, Africans and Europeans • Political Leaders (e.g., John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, John Marshall) • Military Leaders (e.g. George Washington, Meriwether Lewis, Henry Knox) • Cultural and Commercial Leaders (e.g., Paul Revere, Phyllis Wheatley, John Rolfe) • Innovators and Reformers (e.g., Ann Hutchinson, Roger Williams, Junipero Serra)		A. Identify and analyze the political and cultural contributions of individuals and groups to United States history from 1787 to 1914. • Political Leaders (e.g., Daniel Webster, Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson) • Military Leaders (e.g., Andrew Jackson, Robert E. Lee, Ulysses S. Grant) • Cultural and Commercial Leaders (e.g., Jane Addams, Jacob Riis, Booker T. Washington) • Innovators and Reformers (e.g., Alexander G. Bell, Frances E. Willard, Frederick Douglass)		A. Identify and evaluate the political and cultural contributions of individuals and groups to United States history from 1890 to Present. • Political Leaders (e.g., Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt) • Military Leaders (e.g., John Pershing, Douglas MacArthur, Dwight D. Eisenhower) • Cultural and Commerical Leaders (e.g., Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, Langston Hughes, Alan Greenspan) • Innovators and Reformers (e.g., Wilbur and Orville Wright, John L. Lewis, Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King)
B. Identify and describe primary documents, material artifacts and historic sites important in United States history. • Documents (e.g., Declaration of Independence, U.S. Constitution, Bill of Rights) • Writings and Communications (e.g., Pledge of Allegiance, famous quotations and sayings) • Historic Places (e.g., The White House, Mount Rushmore, Statue of Liberty) • The Flag of the United States		B. Identify and explain primary documents, material artifacts and historic sites important in United States history from Beginnings to 1824. • Documents (e.g., Mayflower Compact, Northwest Ordinance, Washington’s Farewell Address) • 18th Century Writings and Communications (e.g., Paine’s Common Sense; Franklin’s ‘‘Join, or Die,’’ Henry’s ‘‘Give me liberty or give me death’’) • Historic Places (e.g., Cahokia Mounds, Spanish Missions, Jamestown)		B. Identify and analyze primary documents, material artifacts and historic sites important in United States history from 1787 to 1914. • Documents (e.g., Fugitive Slave Law, Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Emancipation Proclamation) • 19th Century Writings and Communications (e.g., Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Brown’s ‘‘Washed by Blood,’’ Key’s Star Spangled Banner) • Historic Places (e.g., The Alamo, Underground Railroad sites, Erie Canal)		B. Identify and evaluate primary documents, material artifacts and historic sites important in United States history from 1890 to Present. • Documents (e.g., Treaty of Versailles, North Atlantic Treaty, Neutrality Acts) • 20th Century Writings and Communication (e.g., Coolidge’s ‘‘The Business of America is Business,’’ King’s ‘‘I Have A Dream,’’ Armstrong’s ‘‘One Small Step for Man’’) • Historic Places (e.g., Ellis Island, Pearl Harbor, Los Alamos)

8.3. United States History
8.3.3. GRADE 3		8.3.6. GRADE 6		8.3.9. GRADE 9		8.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to analyze cultural, economic, geographic, political and social relations to . . .
C. Identify important changes in United States history (e.g., Belief Systems and Religions, Commerce and Industry, Innovations, Politics, Settlement Patterns and Expansion, Social Organization, Transportation, Women’s Movement).		C. Explain how continuity and change has influenced United States history from Beginnings to 1824. • Belief Systems and Religions (e.g., impact on daily life, colonial government established religions, communal sects) • Commerce and Industry (e.g., fur trade, development of cash crops) • Innovations (e.g., cotton gin, Whitney; wooden clock, Banneker; stove, Franklin) • Politics (e.g., Hamilton’s defense of John Peter Zenger, The Great Compromise, Marbury v. Madison) • Settlement Patterns (e.g., frontier settlements, slave plantation society, growth of cities) • Social Organization (e.g., community structure on the frontier, cultural and language barriers)		C. Analyze how continuity and change has influenced United States history from 1787 to 1914. • Belief Systems and Religions (e.g., 19th century trends and movements) • Commerce and Industry (e.g., growth of manufacturing industries, economic nationalism) • Innovations (e.g., Brooklyn Bridge, refrigerated shipping, telephone) • Politics (e.g., election of 1860, impeachment of Andrew Johnson, Jim Crow Laws) • Settlement Patterns and Expansion (e.g., Manifest Destiny, successive waves of immigrants, purchase of Alaska and Hawaii) • Social Organization (e.g., social class differences, women’s rights and antislavery movement, education reforms)		C. Evaluate how continuity and change has influenced United States history from 1890 to Present. • Belief Systems and Religions (e.g., 20th century movements, religions of recent immigrants) • (Commerce and Industry (e.g., corporations, conglomerates, multinational corporations) • Innovations (e.g., The Tin Lizzie, radio, World Wide Web) • Politics (e.g., New Deal legislation, Brown v. Topeka, isolationist/non-isola- tionist debate) • Settlement Patterns (e.g., suburbs, large urban centers, decline of city population) • Social Organization (e.g., compulsory school laws, court decisions expanding individual rights, technological impact)

8.3. United States History
8.3.3. GRADE 3		8.3.6. GRADE 6		8.3.9. GRADE 9		8.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to analyze cultural, economic, geographic, political and social relations to . . .
		• Transportation and Trade (e.g., methods of overland travel, water transportation, National Road) • Women’s Movement (e.g., roles and changing status of women, Margaret Brent’s vote, soldier Deborah Sampson)		• Transportation and Trade (e.g., Pony Express, telegraph, Transcontinental Railroad) • Women’s Movement (e.g., roles in the Civil War, medical college for women, Seneca Falls Conference)		• Transportation and Trade (e.g., expansion and decline of railroads, increased mobility, Internet) • Women’s Movement (e.g., right to vote, women in the war effort, Women’s Peace Party)
D. Identify conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations in United States history. • Domestic Instability (e.g., impact on daily activities) • Ethnic and Racial Relations (e.g., treatment of minority groups in history) • Labor Relations (e.g., working conditions over time) • Immigration (e.g., diverse groups inhabiting the state) • Military Conflicts (e.g., struggle for control)		D. Identify and explain conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations in United States history from Beginnings to 1824. • Domestic Instability (e.g., Salem Witch Trials, Shays Rebellion, religious persecution) • Ethnic and Racial Relations (e.g., cooperation between and among Native Americans and European settlers, slave uprisings, ‘‘Colored’’ troops in the Revolution) • Labor Relations (e.g., early union efforts, 10-hour day, women’s role) • Immigration and Migration (e.g., western settlements, Louisiana Purchase, European immigration)		D. Identify and analyze conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations in United States history from 1787 to 1914. • Domestic Instability (e.g., wartime confiscation of private property, abolitionist movement, Reconstruction) • Ethnic and Racial Relations (e.g., Cherokee Trail of Tears, slavery and the Underground Railroad, draft riots) • Labor Relations (e.g., female and child labor, trade unionism, strike breakers) • Immigration and Migration (e.g., Manifest Destiny, eastern and southern European immigration, Chinese Exclusion Act)		D. Identify and evaluate conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations in United States history from 1890 to the Present. • Domestic Instability (e.g., Great Depression, assassination of political and social leaders, terrorist threats) • Ethnic and Racial Relations (e.g., internment camps for Japanese Americans, Montgomery Alabama Bus Boycott, land tensions with Native Americans) • Labor Relations (e.g., rise and decline of industrial unions, free trade agreements, imports impact on domestic employment) • Immigration and Migration (e.g., anti-immigrant attitudes, quota laws, westward and southward migration)

8.3. United States History
8.3.3. GRADE 3		8.3.6. GRADE 6		8.3.9. GRADE 9		8.3.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to analyze cultural, economic, geographic, political and social relations to . . .
		• Military Conflicts (e.g., French and Indian War, American Revolutionary War, War of 1812)		• Military Conflicts (e.g., Native American opposition to expansion and settlement, Civil War, Spanish-American War)		• Military Conflicts (e.g., World War I, World War II, War on Terrorism)
Standard Category 8.1. Historical Analysis and Skills Development should be applied to the above standard statements and descriptors. Suggested chronology for grade levels 4-6, 7-9 and 10-12 focus on a particular century; however, instruction is encouraged that draws on prior or later events in history so that students may develop a seamless view of the world.

8.4. World History
8.4.3. GRADE 3		8.4.6. GRADE 6		8.4.9. GRADE 9		8.4.12. GRADE 12
Pennsylvania’s public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to analyze cultural, economic, geographic, political and social relations to . . .
A. Identify individuals and groups who have made significant political and cultural contributions to world history. • Africa (e.g., Nefertiti, Mansa Musa, Nelson Mandela) • Americas (e.g., Montezuma, Simon Bolivar, Fidel Castro) • Asia (e.g., Hammurabi, Mohandas Gandhi, Benazir Bhutto) • Europe (e.g., Julius Ceasar, Joan of Arc, Pope John Paul)		A. Identify and explain how individuals and groups made significant political and cultural contributions to world history. • Africa (e.g., Nelson Mandela, Desmond Tutu, F. W. de Klerk, Pieter Botha, African National Congress) • Americas (e.g., Pizarro, Atahualpa, Aztecs, Incas, Montezuma, Cortez) • Asia (e.g., Tokugawa Ieyasu, Toyotomi clan, shogun Iemitsu, Commodore Perry, daimyo) • Europe (e.g., Pope Leo X, John Calvin, John Wesley, Martin Luther, Ignatius of Loyola)		A. Analyze the significance of individuals and groups who made major political and cultural contributions to world history before 1500. • Political and Military Leaders (e.g., King Ashoka, Montezuma I, Ghenghis Khan, William the Conqueror) • Cultural and Commercial Leaders (e.g., Mansa Musa, Yak Pac, Cheng Ho, Marco Polo) • Innovators and Reformers (e.g., Erastostenes, Tupac Inka Yupenqui, Johannes Gutenberg)		A. Evaluate the significance of individuals and groups who made major political and cultural contributions to world history since 1450. • Political and Military Leaders (e.g., Askia Daud, Simon Bolivar, Napoleon Bonaparte, Mao Zedong) • Cultural and Commercial Leaders (e.g., Chinua Achebe, Gabriel Garcia Marquiez, Akira Kurosa, Christopher Columbus) • Innovators and Reformers (e.g., Nelson Mandela, Louis-Joseph Papineau, Mohandas Gandhi, Alexander Fleming)
B. Identify historic sites and material artifacts important to world history. • Africa (e.g., Pyramids, treasures of Tutankhamen, Nefertiti’s sculpture) • Americas (e.g., Olmec ritualistic centers, Mayan pyramids, arrowheads) • Asia (e.g., Code of Hammurabi, Ziggurat at Ur, canals) • Europe (e.g., ancient megaliths, Arc de Triomphe, Acropolis)		B. Identify and explain important documents, material artifacts and historic sites in world history. • Africa (e.g., Prohibition of Marriages Act, prison on Robben Island) • Americas (e.g., Tenochtitlan, Aztec masks) • Asia (e.g., samurai sword, Commodore Perry’s Black Ships) • Europe (e.g., Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses, Wittenberg Castle Church)		B. Analyze historical documents, material artifacts and historic sites important to world history before 1500. • Documents, Writings and Oral Traditions (e.g., Rosetta Stone, Aztec glyph writing, Dead Sea Scrolls, Magna Carta) • Artifacts, Architecture and Historic Places (e.g., Ethiopian rock churches, Mayan pyramids, Nok terra cotta figures, megaliths at Stonehenge) • Historic districts (e.g., Memphis and its Necropolis, Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls, Centre of Rome and the Holy See)		B. Evaluate historical documents, material artifacts and historic sites important to world history since 1450. • Documents, Writings and Oral Traditions (e.g., Declaration of the International Conference on Sanctions Against South Africa; Monroe Doctrine, Communist Manifesto, Luther’s Ninety-five Theses) • Artifacts, Architecture and Historic Places (e.g., Robben Island, New York Trade Center, Hiroshima Ground Zero Memorial, Nazi concentration camps) • Historic districts (e.g., Timbuktu, Centre of Mexico City and Xochimilco, Taj Mahal and Gardens, Kremlin and Red Square)
C. Compare similarities and differences between earliest civilizations and life today. (e.g., Africa, Egypt; Asia, Babylonia; Americas, Olmec; Europe, Neolithic settlements).		C. Identify and explain how continuity and change has affected belief systems, commerce and industry, innovations, settlement patterns, social organizations, transportation and women’s roles in world history. • Africa (e.g., Apartheid) • Americas (e.g., European conquest) • Asia (e.g., Japanese society prior to the Meiji Restoration) • Europe (e.g., Impact of the Great Schism and Reformation)		C. Analyze how continuity and change throughout history has impacted belief systems and religions, commerce and industry, innovations, settlement patterns, social organization, transportation and roles of women before 1500. • Africa • Americas • Asia • Europe		C. Evaluate how continuity and change throughout history has impacted belief systems and religions, commerce and industry, innovations, settlement patterns, social organization, transportation and roles of women since 1450. • Africa • Americas • Asia • Europe
D. Identify how conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations affected world history. • Domestic Instability (e.g., political, economic and geographic impact on normal activities) • Labor Relations (e.g., working conditions over time) • Racial and Ethnic Relations (e.g., treatment of various ethnic and racial groups in history) • Immigration and migration (e.g., diverse groups inhabiting a territory) • Military Conflicts (e.g., struggle for control)		D. Explain how conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations affected world history • Africa (e.g., imperialism) • Americas (e.g., European diseases) • Asia (e.g., trade routes) • Europe (e.g., Counter reformation)		D. Analyze how conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations impacted world history through 1500 in Africa, Americas, Asia and Europe • Domestic Instability • Ethnic and Racial Relations • Labor Relations • Immigration and Migration • Military Conflicts		D. Evaluate how conflict and cooperation among social groups and organizations impacted world history from 1450 to Present in Africa, Americas, Asia and Europe. • Domestic Instability • Ethnic and Racial Relations • Labor Relations • Immigration and Migration • Military Conflicts
Standard Category 8.1. Historical Analysis and Skills Development should be applied to the above standard statements and descriptors. Suggested chronology in organizing the content for grade levels 7-9 and 10-12 use the 15th century as the dividing point; however, instruction is encouraged that draws on prior and later events in history so that students may develop a seamless view of the world.

Pennsylvania Core Standards for Reading in
History and Social Studies
Grades 6-12

INTRODUCTION

These standards describe what students in the social studies classroom should know and be able to do with the English language in reading, grade 6 through 12. The standards provide the targets for instruction and student learning essential for success in all academic areas, not just language arts classrooms. Although the standards are not a curriculum or a prescribed series of activities, school entities will use them to develop a local school curriculum that will meet local students’ needs.

The standards below begin at grade 6; standards for K-5 reading in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects are integrated into the K-5 Reading standards.

The English Language Arts Standards for History and Social Studies also provide parents and community members with information about what students should know and be able to do as they progress through the educational program and at graduation. With a clearly defined target provided by the standards, parents, students, educators and community members become partners in learning. Each standard implies an end of year goal—with the understanding that exceeding the standard is an even more desirable end goal.

8.5	Reading Informational Text Students read, understand, and respond to informational text—with emphasis on comprehension, making connections among ideas and between texts with focus on textual evidence.
	GRADE 6-8	GRADE 9-10	GRADE 11-12
Key Ideas and Details			CC.8.5.6-8.A. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources.	CC.8.5.9-10.A. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, attending to such features as the date and origin of the information.	CC.8.5.11-12.A. Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting insights gained from specific details to an understanding of the text as a whole.
CC.8.5.6-8.B. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of the source distinct from prior knowledge or opinions.	CC.8.5.9-10.B. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key events or ideas develop over the course of the text.	CC.8.5.11-12.B. Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary that makes clear the relationships among the key details and ideas.
CC.8.5.6-8.C. Identify key steps in a text’s description of a process related to history/social studies (e.g., how a bill becomes law, how interest rates are raised or lowered).	CC.8.5.9-10.C. Analyze in detail a series of events described in a text; determine whether earlier events caused later ones or simply preceded them.	CC.8.5.11-12.C. Evaluate various explanations for actions or events and determine which explanation best accords with textual evidence, acknowledging where the text leaves matters uncertain.
Craft and Structure			CC.8.5.6-8.D. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary specific to domains related to history/social studies.	CC.8.5.9-10.D. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or economic aspects of history/social science.	CC.8.5.11-12.D. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including analyzing how an author uses and refines the meaning of a key term over the course of a text (e.g., how Madison defines faction in Federalist No. 10).
CC.8.5.6-8.E. Describe how a text presents information (e.g., sequentially, comparatively, causally).	CC.8.5.9-10.E. Analyze how a text uses structure to emphasize key points or advance an explanation or analysis.	CC.8.5.11-12.E. Analyze in detail how a complex primary source is structured, including how key sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of the text contribute to the whole.
CC.8.5.6-8.F. Identify aspects of a text that reveal an author’s point of view or purpose (e.g., loaded language, inclusion or avoidance of particular facts).	CC.8.5.9-10.F. Compare the point of view of two or more authors for how they treat the same or similar topics, including which details they include and emphasize in their respective accounts.	CC.8.5.11-12.F. Evaluate authors’ differing points of view on the same historical event or issue by assessing the authors’ claims, reasoning, and evidence.
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas			CC.8.5.6-8.G. Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and digital texts.	CC.8.5.9-10.G. Integrate quantitative or technical analysis (e.g., charts, research data) with qualitative analysis in print or digital text.	CC.8.5.11-12.G. Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem.
CC.8.5.6-8.H. Distinguish among fact, opinion, and reasoned judgment in a text.	CC.8.5.9-10.H. Assess the extent to which the reasoning and evidence in a text support the author’s claims.	CC.8.5.11-12.H. Evaluate an author’s premises, claims, and evidence by corroborating or challenging them with other information.
CC.8.5.6-8.I. Analyze the relationship between a primary and secondary source on the same topic.	CC.8.5.9-10.I. Compare and contrast treatments of the same topic in several primary and secondary sources.	CC.8.5.11-12.I. Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event, noting discrepancies among sources.
Range and Level of Complex Texts	CC.8.5.6-8.J. By the end of grade 8, read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 6-8 text complexity band independently and proficiently.	CC.8.5.9-10.J. By the end of grade 10, read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 9-10 text complexity band independently and proficiently.	CC.8.5.11-12.J. By the end of grade 12, read and comprehend history/social studies texts in the grades 11-CCR text complexity band independently and proficiently.

Pennsylvania Core Standards for Writing in History and Social Studies
Grades 6-12

INTRODUCTION

These standards describe what students in the social studies classroom should know and be able to do with the English language in writing, grade 6 through 12. The standards provide the targets for instruction and student learning essential for success in all academic areas, not just language arts classrooms. Although the standards are not a curriculum or a prescribed series of activities, school entities will use them to develop a local school curriculum that will meet local students’ needs.

The standards below begin at grade 6; standards for K-5 reading in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects are integrated into the K-5 Writing standards.

The English Language Arts Standards for History and Social Studies also provide parents and community members with information about what students should know and be able to do as they progress through the educational program and at graduation. With a clearly defined target provided by the standards, parents, students, educators and community members become partners in learning. Each standard implies an end of year goal—with the understanding that exceeding the standard is an even more desirable end goal.

8.6	Writing Students write for different purposes and audiences. Students write clear and focused text to convey a well-defined perspective and appropriate content.
	GRADES 6-8	GRADES 9-10	GRADES 11-12
Text Types and Purposes	CC.8.6.6-8.A. Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content. • Introduce claim(s) about a topic or issue, acknowledge and distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and organize the reasons and evidence logically. • Support claim(s) with logical reasoning and relevant, accurate data and evidence that demonstrate an understanding of the topic or text, using credible sources. • Use words, phrases, and clauses to create cohesion and clarify the relationships among claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence. • Establish and maintain a formal style. • Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented.	CC.8.6.9-10.A. Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content. • Introduce precise claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that establishes clear relationships among the claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence. • Develop claim(s) and counterclaims fairly, supplying data and evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both claim(s) and counterclaims in a discipline-appropriate form and in a manner that anticipates the audience’s knowledge level and concerns. • Use words, phrases, and clauses to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims. • Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing. • Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from or supports the argument presented.	CC.8.6.11-12.A. Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content. • Introduce precise, knowledgeable claim(s), establish the significance of the claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that logically sequences the claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence. • Develop claim(s) and counterclaims fairly and thoroughly, supplying the most relevant data and evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both claim(s) and counterclaims in a discipline-appropriate form that anticipates the audience’s knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases. • Use words, phrases, and clauses as well as varied syntax to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims. • Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing. • Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from or supports the argument presented.
	CC.8.6.6-8.B.* Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/experiments, or technical processes. • Introduce a topic clearly, previewing what is to follow; organize ideas, concepts, and information into broader categories as appropriate to achieving purpose; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., charts, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension. • Develop the topic with relevant, well-chosen facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples. • Use appropriate and varied transitions to create cohesion and clarify the relationships among ideas and concepts. • Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. • Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone. • Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation presented.	CC.8.6.9-10.B.* Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/experiments, or technical processes. • Introduce a topic and organize ideas, concepts, and information to make important connections and distinctions; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension. • Develop the topic with well-chosen, relevant, and sufficient facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the audience’s knowledge of the topic. • Use varied transitions and sentence structures to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships among ideas and concepts. • Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to manage the complexity of the topic and convey a style appropriate to the discipline and context as well as to the expertise of likely readers. • Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing. • Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation presented (e.g., articulating implications or the significance of the topic).	CC.8.6.11-12.B.* Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of historical events, scientific procedures/experiments, or technical processes. • Introduce a topic and organize complex ideas, concepts, and information so that each new element builds on that which precedes it to create a unified whole; include formatting (e.g., headings), graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension. • Develop the topic thoroughly by selecting the most significant and relevant facts, extended definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the audience’s knowledge of the topic. • Use varied transitions and sentence structures to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships among complex ideas and concepts. • Use precise language, domain-specific vocabulary and techniques such as metaphor, simile, and analogy to manage the complexity of the topic; convey a knowledgeable stance in a style that responds to the discipline and context as well as to the expertise of likely readers. • Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation provided (e.g., articulating implications or the significance of the topic).
Production and Distribution of Writing			CC.8.6.6-8.C. Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.	CC.8.6.9-10.C. Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.	CC.8.6.11-12.C. Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.
CC.8.6.6-8.D. With some guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach, focusing on how well purpose and audience have been addressed.	CC.8.6.9-10.D. Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach, focusing on addressing what is most significant for a specific purpose and audience.	CC.8.6.11-12.D. Develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach, focusing on addressing what is most significant for a specific purpose and audience.
CC.8.6.6-8.E. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing and present the relationships between information and ideas clearly and efficiently.	CC.8.6.9-10.E. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products, taking advantage of technology’s capacity to link to other information and to display information flexibly and dynamically.	CC.8.6.11-12.E. Use technology, including the Internet, to produce, publish, and update individual or shared writing products in response to ongoing feedback, including new arguments or information.
Research to Build and Present Knowledge			CC.8.6.6-8.F. Conduct short research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question), drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions that allow for multiple avenues of exploration.	CC.8.6.9-10.F. Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.	CC.8.6.11-12.F. Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.
CC.8.6.6-8.G. Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively; assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation.	CC.8.6.9-10.G. Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and digital sources, using advanced searches effectively; assess the usefulness of each source in answering the research question; integrate information into the text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation.	CC.8.6.11-12.G. Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and digital sources, using advanced searches effectively; assess the strengths and limitations of each source in terms of the specific task, purpose, and audience; integrate information into the text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and overreliance on any one source and following a standard format for citation.
CC.8.6.6-8.H. Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.	CC.8.6.9-10.H. Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.	CC.8.6.11-12.H. Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.
Range of Writing	CC.8.6.6-8.I. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for reflection and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks, purposes, and audiences.	CC.8.6.9-10.I. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for reflection and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks, purposes, and audiences.	CC.8.6.11-12.I. Write routinely over extended time frames (time for reflection and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks, purposes, and audiences.

* Students’ narrative skills continue to grow in these grades. The Standards require that students be able to incorporate narrative elements effectively into arguments and informative/explanatory texts. In history/social studies, students must be able to incorporate narrative accounts into their analyses of individuals or events of historical import. In science and technical subjects, students must be able to write precise enough descriptions of the step-by-step procedures they use in their investigations or technical work that others can replicate them and (possibly) reach the same results.

XXIV. GLOSSARY

Artifact:	Any object made by human work or skill.
Beginnings:	A demarcation of time designating studies to commence with the written historical record.
Central issue:	The primary concern from which other problems or matters are derived. For example, today’s world migration flows are a central issue from which other concerns such as terrorist threats may arise.
Chronology:	The science of measuring time and of dating events. Examples include BCE (before the common era) and CE (common era). Another reference to chronology is CA, around the time, circa.
Conflict:	The opposition of persons or groups that gives rise to dramatic action. Such actions could include the use of force as in combat.
Culture:	The skills and arts of a given people in a given period of time or a civilization.
Document:	Anything written or printed used to record or prove something.
Historical evidence:	Something that makes something else noticeable, obvious or evident.
Historical passage:	An article or section of a longer work that has importance to the past.
Innovation:	The introduction of something new; an idea, method or devise.
Interpretation:	Explanation or to reply to a situation in order to make sense of it (e.g., a time period, an individual’s actions).
Memorial:	An object or ceremony serving as a remembrance for a person, group, day, site or event.
Museum:	A historical display in a building, room, etc. for exhibiting artistic, historical or scientific objects.
Present:	A demarcation of time designating studies to the current year.
Opinion:	A belief based not on certainty but on what seems to be true or probable.
Strike:	A work stoppage by employees organized against the management of a business entity.
Time lines:	A measure of a period during which something exists or happens; usually displayed in chronological order on a graph or linear lines.
War:	A conflict in which two or more nations or two or more entities inside a nation are at odds.
Xenophobia:	An intense fear or dislike of groups unknown or not within one’s experience including the group’s customs and culture.